Progress 07/01/03 to 06/30/08

Outputs
OUTPUTS: 1- Use of Saline Wastewater from Electrical Power Plants for Irrigation of Agricultural Crops: The 1987-2007 irrigation season data at this experimental site show that variability in the weather conditions (air temperature, atmospheric moisture, radiation, wind, precipitation, etc.) have resulted in distinctly different ETa and ETp from year to year. By careful collection of weather data and evaluation of ETa and proper management of irrigation (amount, time and duration of irrigation), it has been shown that surface runoff and deep percolation have been avoided. These practices should be continued to prevent surface and groundwater pollution. The effect of salt accumulation on the transpiration of alfalfa and other forage crops, modeling of plant-soil-water-atmosphere interactions for use in predicting farm longevity, and developing a database for model validation are being studied by another group of researchers. Their studies thus far have shown that alfalfa yield and ET are likely to decrease only slightly for the coming years if saline wastewater continues to be used for irrigation. The results of the animal project conducted at the farm have shown that, despite having soft teeth and bone weaknesses in the cattle, the meat products are safe for human consumption because the harmful levels of certain elements, characteristics of the water, are removed by filtering mechanisms in the crops and cattle. 2- Cloud contribution to the daily and annual radiation budget in a mountainous valley: Clouds are major factors that rule the solar and terrestrial radiation over the Earth's surface. They affect the radiation budget of our planet by the reflecting, absorbing and scattering of solar radiation and the re-emission of terrestrial radiation. Clouds affect the weather and climate by positive or negative feedbacks. Earth's clouds are so deeply interwoven into the climate system that they cannot be ignored in even the most rudimentary climate models. Many researchers have worked on the parameterization of clouds and their effects on the radiation budget. Some of the recent works are reported here. The present work deals with the development of an algorithm for the continuous (day and night) evaluation of cloud, such as cloud base height, cloud base temperature, cloud coverage, and cloud contribution to the daily and annual radiation budget at local and regional scales. 3- The daily and annual effects of dew, frost, and snow on a non-ventilated net radiometer: Dew, frost and snow are very important sources of moisture in many parts of the world. While many researchers have addressed the radiation and energy balance and albedo of different surfaces such as desert, glaciers, sea ice and snow-covered areas, there is little detailed information on the effects of dew formation, frost deposition, and snow accumulation on the measurement of net radiation by a non-ventilated net radiometer. This subject will be addressed in this article. PARTICIPANTS: Utah State University, University of Utah, and Dugway Proving Ground, Utah, and Utah Power. TARGET AUDIENCES: These studies provide information for scientific communities, State agencies, and private sectors. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Not relevant to this project.

Impacts
1- Use of Saline Wastewater from Electrical Power Plants for Irrigation of Agricultural Crops: Saline wastewater from a coal-fired power plant owned and operated by Utah Power (Rocky Mountain Power) has been applied to the Hunter Research Farm (Farm) in central Utah, U.S.A., since 1987, to irrigate various agricultural crops. This report addresses the primary goals of this research: to dispose of saline wastewater by maximizing crop production and actual evapotranspiration (ETa) and to prevent contamination of surface and groundwater by eliminating runoff and leaching. We used the water balance approach and the Bowen ratio-energy balance approach to study ETa throughout the years (1987-2007). Plots were established in 1987 where the effects of irrigation on water and salt budgets and crop yield could be carefully monitored. Results indicate that yield and ETa are likely to decrease only slightly for the coming years if saline wastewater is used for irrigation. 2- Cloud contribution to the daily and annual radiation budget in a mountainous valley: As shown, the proposed algorithm is a promising approach for evaluation of cloud base temperature, cloud base height, the percent of skies covered by cloud, their contribution to the radiation balance throughout the year. The cloud base height is a good indication of the closeness of the cloud base to the surface. Whenever this height is around zero, formation of fog is guaranteed. Observations (such as formation of fog which yielded zero cloud base height, almost equal cloud base and surface temperatures, and overcast skies at local scales) and satellite cloud imaging data confirmed the performance of the proposed model. This system can be expanded throughout a region by having ventilated pyrgeometers to measure the incoming longwave (Rli) or atmospheric radiation, temperature and relative humidity probes, and barometric pressure sensors to measure the 2-m relative humidity (RH2), air temperature (Ta2), and the surface pressure (Psurf.), respectively, scattered throughout the region. The regional system can be configured to operate either stand-alone or networked. The regional system can be configured to operate either stand-alone or networked. 3-The daily and annual effects of dew, frost, and snow on a non-ventilated net radiometer: The formation of dew, deposition of frost and accumulation of snow mainly on the upper domes of a non-ventilated net radiometer seriously affect the measurement of available energy (net radiation). Net radiometers measure radiation, and energy balances and are widely used for estimation of evapotranspiration throughout the world. The formation of dew, deposition of frost, and accumulation of snow mainly on the upper dome of the non-ventilated net radiometer affected the net radiation reading seriously. As shown, the effects of dew formation and frost deposition are opposite of the effect of snow accumulation on the upper dome of a non-ventilated radiometer. While dew and frost formation increase the net radiation readings, snow accumulation reduces the readings made by a non-ventilated net radiometer, compared to the ventilated one.

Publications

• Malek, E. 2008. Cloud contribution to the daily and annual radiation budget in a mountainous valley. Atmospheric Research 88:367-380.

Progress 01/01/07 to 12/31/07

Outputs
OUTPUTS: 1- Use of Saline Wastewater from Electrical Power Plants for Irrigation of Agricultural Crops (2006 Report): Saline wastewater from a coal-fired power plant owned and operated by Utah Power (Rocky Mountain Power) has been applied to the Hunter Research Farm in central Utah, U.S.A., since 1987, to irrigate various agricultural crops. Researchers from Utah State University (USU), Brigham Young University (BYU), and PacifiCorp have been involved in this multipurpose project. Despite having an unexpected rain (averaged 57.4 mm = 2.26 inches for all stations) on 6 October, 2006, the irrigation scheduling (timings, amounts, and frequencies) was managed in such a way that this heavy rain did not cause any surface runoff and deep percolation. 2- Evaluation of annual radiation, energy, and cloudiness over different ecosystems: The solar radiation absorbed by the Earth's surface is used for the processes of warming the air (sensible heat), evapotranspiration (latent heat) and warming the surface. Evapotranspiration is referred to as the water evaporated from wet surfaces of soils and plants and transpired through plant stomata. Without the heat and light of the sun, life as we know it could not exist on the Earth. Part of this solar (shortwave) energy is reflected back to space. After being absorbed by the surface, the Earth's temperature rises and emits longwave (terrestrial) radiation. This longwave radiation is absorbed by the atmospheric gases and clouds. Radiation, energy, and water balance components have been sudied in this project. 3- Evaluation of the winertime air pollution in Cache Valley, Utah, USA: Responsible factors for creation of the worst national air pollution in Logan (the County seat) in mid-January, 2004 and some suggestions to alleviate the wintertime particle concentration in Cache Valley Within a few days of the onset of these inversions, levels of particulate matter rose high enough to cause significant short-term illness, asthma attacks, hospitalizations and possibly even death. In the case of the Cache Valley study: driving as little as possible, car pooling, or using public transportation are some other ways to prevent more pollution of the air. Cache Valley is the Utah State's leader in dairy product. Cows and waste product produced from the 75,000 of them living in Cache Valley (Utah Statesman, 2004) provide a lot of ammonia, which is a major contributor to the high level of PM2.5 in the Valley. Research needs to be done to reduce ammonia from the waste product. Driving as little as possible, car pooling, or using public transportation is some other ways to prevent more pollution of the air. Vehicle miles traveled (VMT) is a measure that is commonly used to describe automobile use on a daily or annual basis. The VMT program can reduce the concentration of pollutants emitting from transportation. Cache Valley is the Utah State's leader in dairy product. Cows and waste product produced from the 75,000 of them living in Cache Valley provide a significant source of ammonia, which is a major contributor to the high level of PM2.5 in the Valley Research needs to be done to reduce ammonia from the waste product. PARTICIPANTS: Utah State University, University of Utah, and Dugway Proving Ground, Utah. TARGET AUDIENCES: These studies provide information for scientific communities, State agencies, and private sectors. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: This project will be ended on 30 June, 2008. There will not be any major changes in the objectives of this project.

Impacts
1- Use of Saline Wastewater from Electrical Power Plants for Irrigation of Agricultural Crops: The 1987-2006 irrigation season data at these experimental sites show distinctly different actual and potential evapotranspiration (ET) from year to year. By careful collection of weather data, evaluation of ET, and management of irrigation (amount, time and duration), it has been shown that surface runoff and deep percolation have been avoided. 2- Evaluation of annual radiation, energy, and water budgets components over different ecosystems: The daily and annual radiation, energy, and water budgets components over different ecosystems in Utah, U.S.A, have been studied. This study yielded many scientific articles published in referreed journals. Among them are: Atmospheric Research, Journal of Arid Environment, Irrigation Science, International Journal of Climatology, Theortetical and Applied Climatology, Geomorphology, etc. Numerous abstracts and articles were published in scientific conference proceedings. 3- Evaluation of the wintertime air pollution in Cache Valley, Utah, USA: On 15 January, 2004, the maximum concentration reached about 182 ug m-3 of air, an astonishing high value compared to the values of 65 and over, indicating a health alert for everyone. The causes of this inversion and some suggestions to alleviate the wintertime particle concentration in Cache Valley will be addressed in this article. The causes of this inversion and some suggestions to alleviate the wintertime particle concentration in Cache Valley will be addressed in this article.

Publications

• No publications reported this period

Progress 01/01/06 to 12/31/06

Outputs
Saline wastewater coming from coal-fired power plants owned and operated by PacifiCorp, has been applied to the Hunter Research Farm in central Utah, U.S.A., since 1987, to irrigates various agricultural crops. Researchers from Utah State University (USU), Brigham Young University (BYU), and PacifiCorp (Utah Power) are involved in this multipurpose project. The primary goals of this research are to maximize crop production and evapotranspiration, while not allowing surface runoff to natural streams or leaching to groundwater. We used the water balance approach, along with the continuous measurement of precipitation, irrigation (using the sprinkler system), and the Bowen ratio system to study evapotranspiration throughout the years (1987-2005). Based upon the daily evapotranspiration and precipitation (if any), we adjusted the amount, duration, and frequency of irrigation with saline wastewater, in such a way that no surface runoff or deep percolation occurred during the past 19 years. Surface runoff and deep percolation (if any) in this study is considered as polluted water. Research has been conducted at the Hunter Research Farm (186.56 hectares = 461 acres, 39 degrees 10 minutes N, 111 degrees 2 minutes W, 1725 m above mean sea level) in central Utah, U.S.A., since 1987. The objective of this part of research is to determine the water balance in the alfalfa fields irrigated with saline wastewater coming from the evaporation ponds of the power plant at Hunter. This power plant burns coal to heat water. The water boils and changes to steam. The steam is used for spinning a turbine which turns a generator to produce electricity. After the steam goes through the turbine, cooling water (piped from the nearby river) is used to turn the steam back into water again. After going through the power plant, the water is sent to the cooling towers. Some of the water evaporates into the air here and the remaining water goes back to the plant to be used again. After being recycled many times, its efficiency for cooling decreases (due to increase in salinity), then it is channelled to the wastewater evaporation ponds. Saline wastewater can be stored in evaporation ponds for year-round evaporation, or it can be used for irrigating crops such as alfalfa, wheat, barley, etc. The latter choice is more economical than conventional water-handling methods. According to Giles, it costs about $0.82 to dispose of 1,000 gallons of wastewater using the Research Farm; it would cost $19.82 to dispose of 1,000 gallons using evaporation ponds, $6.66 per 1,000 gallons using brine concentrators, and $5.91 per 1,000 gallons to use reverse osmosis and lime softeners. The primary goals of this research are to develop a method for disposing of the wastewater from the power plants by irrigation and to maximize salt deposition in the soil, maximize crop evapotranspiration (ET), minimize runoff from the soil surface and minimize leaching to the ground water. This must be done with a finite quantity of wastewater for irrigation and a finite amount of land to irrigate. A secondary goal is to obtain reasonable yields of crops and to manage the Farm as efficiently as possible.

Impacts
The 1987-2005 irrigation season data at this experimental site shows that variability in the weather conditions (air temperature, atmospheric moisture, radiation, wind, precipitation, etc.) have resulted in distinctly different actual (ETa) and potential (ETp) evapotranspiration from year to year. By careful collection of weather data and evaluation of evapotranspiration, and proper management of irrigation (amount, time and duration of irrigation), it has been shown that surface runoff and deep percolation have been avoided. These practices should be continued to prevent surface and groundwater pollution.

Publications

• No publications reported this period

Progress 01/01/05 to 12/31/05

Outputs
The West Desert Basin Microclimate: We set up two automatic weather stations over a playa (the flat floor of an undrained desert basin that becomes at times a shallow lake), approximately 65 km east-west by 130 km north-south, located in Dugway (40 degrees 08 minutes N, 113 degrees 27 minutes W, 1124 m above mean sea level) in the West Desert Basin of Utah, U.S.A., in 1999. These stations measured the radiation budget components, namely: incoming (Rsi) and outgoing (Rso) solar or shortwave radiation, using two Kipp & Zonen pyranometers (one inverted), the incoming (Rli or atmospheric) and outgoing (Rlo or terrestrial) longwave radiation, using two Kipp & Zonen pyrgeometers (one inverted) during the 2003/2004 water year (1 October/30 September.) These sensors were ventilated throughout the year to prevent dew and frost formation. Summation of these components yields the net (Rn) radiation. We also measured the air temperatures and humidity at one and two meters and the soil moisture and temperature (Campbell Sci., Inc., CSI) to evaluate the energy budget components (latent, LE; sensible, H; and the surface soil, Gsurf, heat fluxes). The 10-m wind speed (U10) and direction (R.M. Young wind monitor), precipitation (CSI), and the surface temperature (Radiation and Energy Balance Systems, REBS) were also measured during 2000. The measurements were taken every two seconds, averaged into 20-min, continuously, throughout the years. The 2003/2004 water year comparison of radiation budget components indicates that about 38 % of the annual Rsi ( 6665.5 MJ / (square m y) was reflected back to the sky as Rso, and Rli and Rlo, amounting to 10817.9 MJ / (square m y) and 13122.7 MJ / (square m y) , respectively. This yields about 1790.8 MJ / (square m y) as Rn which is about 28 % of the annual Rsi. Of the total 1790.8 MJ / (square m y) available energy, about 15 % was used for the process of evaporation (LE) and 85 % for heating the air (H). The annual heat contribution from the soil to the energy budget was negligible during the experimental period. Our studies showed that the total annual measured precipitation amounted to 119.3 mm / y during the 2003/2004 water year but the total evaporation was 129.9 mm / y, which means some water was extracted from the shallow water table (about 60 cm on the average depth during the years 2003-2004). Keywords: Annual radiation, energy and water budgets, playa, Bowen ratio system, evaporation, solar and wind energies, windiness.

Impacts
The West Desert Basin, with an area of 49117 square kilometers (18964 square miles), is the biggest and the most arid region basins among the four basins (other three are: Bear River, Weber river, and Utah Lake basins) included in the Great Salt Lake Desert Basin. About 87 % of the West Desert Basin is covered by rangelands and playa (the flat floor of an undrained desert basin that becomes at times a shallow lake.) Little detailed information exists on the microclimate of desert surfaces. Increasing use of the Great Salt Lake West Desert in Utah for military, water disposal and other large-scale developments motivated a series of recent meteorological and hydrological studies. knowing the microclimate of this desert region will facilitate these studies. Bowen ratio and radiation stations were used to evaluate the microclimate of the West Desert Basin.

Publications

• Malek, E. 2005. Monitoring of clouds at local scale. Proceedings: The 2005 Hyperspectral and Sounding of the Environment Topical Meeting. Optical Society of America (OSA)., Alexandria, VA,. Jan. 31 - 3 Feb., 2005. HWA2 Section: 3 pages.
• Malek, E. 2005. Nine years evaluation of radiation and energy fluxes in a semi-arid valley.. 5th Internat. GEWEX Conf., Costa Mesa, CA. 20-24 June, 2005. Abstract presentation.
• Malek, E. 2005. The West Desert Basin microclimate. The 2005 GSA Annual Meeting and Exposition., Salt Lake City, UT. 16-19 October, 2005. Abstract presentation.
• Malek, E. 2005. Validation of local-cloud model outputs with the GOES satellite imagery.. The 2005 Joint Assembly (AGU, NABS, SEG, and SPD/AAS). New Orleans, LA., 23 - 27 May, 2005., New Orleans, LA. 23 - 27 May, 2005. Abstract presentation.
• Malek, E., Tess, D., Martin, RS, Silva, PJ. 2005. Meteorological and Environmental Aspects of One of the Worst National Air Pollution Episodes (January, 2004) in Logan, Cache Valley, Utah, U.S.A. Atmos Res., In Press.

Progress 01/01/04 to 12/31/04

Outputs
Cache Valley is among many places in the State of Utah which experience high wintertime high concentrations of particulate matter PM2.5 and PM10 (with diameter less than 2.5 and 10 micrometer, respectively). For instance, 15 January, 2004, the valley had the dirtiest air in the USA to breathe. What causes this extremely high concentration of air pollutants in Cache Valley? Researchers from different disciplines (including: biometeorology, environmental engineering, and biochemistry) at Utah State University (USU) gathered to address the meteorological and environmental aspects of one of the worst national air pollution episodes in Logan, Cache Valley, USA. As a preliminary result, it was reported that the valley bowled-shaped topography and existence of high atmospheric pressure and snow-covered surfaces yielded stagnant air in the valley due to inversion (increase of temperature with height). With the inversion, the air does not have any tendency to move. Lack of enough precipitation and wind enhanced the winter time inversion in the valley. It was determined that air pollutants created in the valley by wood-burning stoves, vehicles, factories, ammonia from livestock, etc., accumulated in the valley, which yielded the worst polluted air in the USA. What can be done to alleviate this problem? Due to the valley geographical structure, it is recommended to reduce the amount of pollutants to the air from vehicles by using mass transportation and by maintenance and inspection of the emissions from gasoline-burning vehicles.

Impacts
Logan, Utah, U.S.A., had the nation's worst air pollution on 15 January, 2004. The high concentration of PM2.5 (particulates smaller than 2.5 micrometer in diameter) in the air resulted from geographical, meteorological, and environmental aspects of Cache Valley. A strong inversion and light precipitation and/or wind were the major causes for trapping pollutants in the air. Meteorological factors enhancing the inversion were: the prolonged high atmospheric surface pressure, a snow-covered surface which boosted the cold air temperature (up to -23.6 Deg. C on January 23rd) and high reflection of solar radiation (up to about 80%), which caused less solar radiation absorption during the day throughout the most part of January 2004. Among non-meteorological factors are Cache Valley's small-basin geographical structure which traps air, with no big body of water to help the air circulation; motor vehicle emissions, and existence of excess ammonia gas as a byproduct of livestock manure and urine. Concentration of PM2.5 was monitored in downtown Logan. On January 15, 2004, the 24-hr, filter-based concentration reached about 132.5 microgram per cubic meter of air, an astonishingly high value compared to the values of 65 microgram per cubic meter and over, indicating a health alert for everyone. These tiny particles in the air have an enormous impact on health, aggravating heart and lung disease, triggering asthma and even death. The causes of this inversion and some suggestions to alleviate the wintertime particle concentration in Cache Valley will be addressed in this article.

Publications

• Malek, E. 2004. An algorithm for continuous evaluation of cloud base height, cloud base temperature, and cloud coverage at local scale. Proceedings: The 14th Conf. Internat. Con. Clouds & Precip. Bologna, Italy. 18-23 July 2004. Page 1242-1245.
• Malek, E. Annual water balance at the Hunter and Huntington research farms. 2003 UAES Research Report 189. January 2004. 50 pp.

Progress 01/01/03 to 12/31/03

Outputs
Microclimate of a Desert Playa: Evaluation of Annual Radiation, Energy, and Water Budgets Components. Two weather stations were set up over a playa (the flat floor of an undrained desert basin that becomes at times a shallow lake), approximately 65 km east-west by 130 km north-south, located in Dugway (40o 08' N, 113o 27' W, 1124 m above mean sea level) in northwestern Utah, U.S.A., in 1999. These stations measured the radiation budget components, namely: incoming (Rsi) and outgoing (Rso) solar or shortwave radiation, using two Kipp & Zonen pyranometers (one inverted), the incoming (Rli or atmospheric) and outgoing (Rlo or terrestrial) longwave radiation, using two Kipp & Zonen pyrgeometers (one inverted) during the year 2000. These sensors were ventilated throughout the year to prevent dew and frost formation. Summation of these components yields the net (Rn) radiation. We also measured the air temperatures and humidity at one and two meters and the soil moisture and temperature (Campbell Sci., Inc., CSI) to evaluate the energy budget components (latent, LE; sensible, H; and the soil, Gsur; heat fluxes). The 10-m wind speed (U10) and direction (R.M. Young wind monitor), precipitation (CSI), and the surface temperature (Radiation and Energy Balance Systems, REBS) were also measured during 2000. The measurements were taken every two seconds, averaged into 20-min, continuously, throughout the year 2000. The annual comparison of radiation budget components indicates that about 34 % of the annual Rsi ( 6937.7 MJ m-2 y-1) was reflected back to the sky as Rso, and Rli and Rlo, amounting to 9943.4 MJ m-2 y-1 and 12789.7 MJ m-2 y-1, respectively. This yields about 1634.3 MJ m-2 y-1as Rn which is about 24 % of the annual Rsi. Of the total 1634.3 MJ m-2 y-1 available energy, about 25 % was used for the process of evaporation (LE) and 77 % for heating the air (H). The annual heat contribution from the soil to the energy budget amounted to 2 % during the experimental period. Our studies showed that the total annual measured precipitation amounted to 108.0 mm y-1 during the year 2000, but the total evaporation was 167.6 mm y-1, which means some water was extracted from the shallow water table (about 60 cm on the average depth during the year 2000).

Impacts
This research reports the soil characteristics, the daily and annual radiation, energy, and water budgets components over a playa located in northwestern Utah, U.S.A. The information and findings should increase our knowledge about similar desert playas which cover most of the desert regions in the world, and the possibility of harvesting solar and wind energies over these vast and flat playas.

Publications

• Malek, E. 2003. Microclimate of a desert playa: Evaluation of annual radiation, energy, and water budgets components. Intern. J. Climatol., 23: 333-345.
• Malek, E. 2003. Annual water balance at the Hunter and Huntington Research Farms. Utah Agric. Exp. Stn., Utah State Univ. Res. Rpt. 186.

Progress 01/01/02 to 12/31/02

Outputs
We set up an automatic weather station over a playa (the flat floor of an undrained desert basin that becomes at times a shallow lake), approximately 65 km east-west by 130 km north-south, located at the U.S. Army Dugway Proving Ground (40 degrees 08 minutes N, 113 degrees 27 minutes W, 1124 m above mean sea level) in northwestern Utah, USA, in 1999. This station measured the incoming (Rsi) and outgoing (Rso) solar or shortwave radiation using two CM21 Kipp & Zonen pyranometers (one inverted), the incoming (Rli or atmospheric) and outgoing (Rlo or terrestrial) longwave radiation, using two CG1 Kipp & Zonen pyrgeometers (one inverted), and the net (Rn) radiation using a Q*7 net radiometer (Radiation Energy Balance System, REBS). We also measured the 10-m wind speed (U10) and direction (R.M. Young wind monitor) and precipitation (Campbell Sci., Inc.). The measurements were taken every two seconds, averaged into 20-min, continuously, throughout the year. The annual (August 1999 - August 2000) comparisons of global or solar radiation and windiness with two other stations in central (Hunter) and northern (Logan) Utah, indicate higher solar radiation (Rsi at Dugway = 7797 MJ / (m2 - period) vs. Rsi at Hunter = 7021 MJ / (m2 - period) and Rsi at Logan = 6865 MJ / (m2 - period) and much higher annual mean windiness (U at Dugway = 387 km / d vs. U at Hunter = 275 km / d and U at Logan = 174 km / d) throughout the period over the playa. These data reveal the possibility of simultaneously harvesting these two sources of clean energies at this vast and uniform playa. Keywords: Annual radiation balance, playa, solar and wind energies, windiness.

Impacts
Analysis of the incoming solar radiation at the playa (Rsi, at Dugway) shows, on the average, about 19.6 MJ / (meter 2 - d) solar energy throughout the 397 days of the experiment. Using photovoltaic solar cells (33% efficiency), we have about 6.5 MJ / (m 2 - d) = 1.5 * 10 2 J /(m 2 - s) = 1.5 * 10 2 Watt / (m 2 ) = 5.4*102 kWh / (m 2 ) from each solar collector (for day length = 12 h). Our study of wind data over playa showed that the calm conditions occurred only about 3 % of the time throughout the experimental period (August 1999 - August 2000). The average wind speed at 10 m amounted to 4.3 m / s during this period. The theoretical power (P) available from wind can be formulated as: P = (3.14 / 2) * airdens* E * R2 * U203 where P is power in W, airdens = 1 kg / m3 is the air density, E = 30 % - 40 % is the turbine efficiency, R is the turbine-blade radius in m. U20 = U10 [Ln(20 / zo) / Ln(10 / zo)] where U20 is wind speed at 20 m in m /s, and zo = 0.0002 m is the aerodynamic roughness length over playa. A single wind turbine with an efficiency of 40 % and R = 10 m (installed at 20 m), and U20 = 4.6 m / s (average wind speed in playa at 20 m) would yield about 6.1 * 103 W = 2.2 * 104 kWh. The maximum (gust) wind speed of 25.5 m / s occurred around 1900 local time on 19 March 2000. To prevent destruction of the turbine in winds greater than 10 m /s, the blade can be designed to gradually feather (reduce their angle of attack) as wind speed increases. Our study showed that the Great Basin playa could be a suitable area to harvest renewable energies.

Publications

• Malek, E. 2002. Irrigation season water balance at the Hunter and Huntington Research Farms and the Huntington Upper Field. Utah Agric. Exp. Stn., Utah State Univ. Res. Rpt. 183. 61 pp.

Progress 01/01/01 to 12/31/01

Outputs
Dew and fog play major roles in providing the atmospheric moisture to plants and anthropods living in arid regions all over the world. Studies are needed to discriminate between dew and fog, especially when making a measurement of dew. We have developed a radiation system by measuring the incoming and outgoing solar (shortwave) radiation using two CM 21 Kipp & Zonen pyranometers (one inverted), and the incoming (atmospheric) and outgoing (terrestrial) longwave radiation using two CG 1 pyrgeometers, in Logan (41 degrees and 47 minutes North, 111 degrees and 51 minutes west, 1460 m above mean sea level), Utah, U.S.A., continously since 1995. The experimental site is far away from any obstacle and is located in the middle of a field covered mostly by cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum L.). These instruments are ventilated with heated air to prevent precipitation of dew and frost on the sensors, which otherwise would disturb the measurements. Based upon these measurements and an algorithm developed by the author, the cloud base height, the cloud base temperature, and percent of cloudiness can be parameterized at local scale. A cloud base height around zero would indicate fog at the local scale. In 1999 we added a Bowen ratio system to measure the evapotranspiration, dew, and frost continuously throughout the year at the same location close to the radiation system. Combining these two systems (radiation and Bowen ratio) has yielded a reasonable approach to differentiate between the atmospheric moisture collected by dew and fog. Despite having a 100% relative humidity at the time of the dew formation, the radiation system differentiates dew from fog.

Impacts
The proposed algorithm showed a promising approach for evaluation of cloud base height, cloud base temperature, and more importantly, the percent of sky covered by cloud. The cloud base height is a good indication of the closeness of the cloud base to the surface. Whenever the height is around zero, formation of fog is guaranteed. On the other hand, having the Bowen ratio and the radiation stations close to each other, dew formation can be evaluated easily.

Publications

• Makel, E. 2001. Dew effects on radiometry. Proceedings of second International Conference on Fog & Fog Collection, Internat. Develop. Res. Cent (IDRC), Ottawa, Canada, PP: 341-344.
• Makel, E. 2001. Differentiation of the atmospheric moisture collected by dew and fog. Proceedings of second International Conference on Fog & Fog Collection, Internat. Develop. Res. Cent (IDRC), Ottawa, Canada, PP: 309-312.
• Malek, E. 2001. Use of saline wastewater from electrical power plant for irrigation: Part 2. Annual water balance at the Hunter and Huntington Research Farms. 2000 Report, Utah Agric. Exp. Sta., Res. Rep. # 168. 42 pages.

Progress 01/01/00 to 12/31/00

Outputs
Formation of dew, deposition of frost and accumulation of snow mainly on the upper dome of a non-ventilated net radiometer seriously affect the measurement of available energy (net radiation). Net radiation is a major component of hourly or daily radiation and energy balances and is widely used for estimation of evapotranspiration throughout the world. To study the effects of dew, frost, and snow on a non-ventilated net radiometer, we set up a radiation station which uses 2 CM21 Kipp & Zonen pyranometers (one inverted), 2 CG1 Kipp & Zonen pyrgeometers (one inverted) along with a Q*7.1 net radiometer (Radiation & Energy Balance Systems, Inc.; REBS) in a semi-arid mountainous valley in Logan, Utah, U.S.A. The pyranometers and pyrgeometers were ventilated using 4 CV2 Kipp & Zonen ventilation systems. The net radiometer was not ventilated. Ventilation of pyranometers and pyrgeometers prevents dew and frost and snow accumulation which otherwise would disturb the measurement. All sensors were installed at about 2.5 m above the ground, which is covered with natural vegetation during the growing season (May - September). The incoming (Rsi) and outgoing (Rso) solar or shortwave radiation, the incoming (Rli, atmospheric) and outgoing (Rlo, terrestrial) longwave radiation, and the net radiation have been continuously measured by pyranometers, pyrgeometers and net radiometer, respectively, since 1995. These parameters have been measured every 2 seconds and averaged into 20 minutes. The ventilated net radiation Rn,vent. = Rsi - Rso + Rli - Rlo can be compared with the non-ventilated net radiation Rn,unvent. to evaluate the dew, frost and snow effects. As shown by Malek (1997), there is a perfect agreement between Rn,vent. and Rn,unvent. throughout the years when no dew, frost or precipitation (rain or snow) are involved. For this study we chose three days: 26 April 1999 with an early morning dew, 6 January 2000 with an early morning frost, and the snowy day of 24 February 2000. Dew formation, frost deposition, and snow accumulation occurred mainly on the upper dome of the non-ventilated Q*7 net radiometer on the related days, while the ventilated Kipp & Zonen system was free of dew, frost and snow. Rn,unvent. during dew and frost periods of the above-mentioned days was greater than Rn,vent. (-0.2 MJ m-2 vs. -0.8 MJ m-2 during almost 4 hours on 26 April 1999, and -0.2 MJ m-2 vs. -0.7 MJ m-2 during almost 6.5 hours on 6 January 2000). The reason for higher reading by the non-ventilated net radiometer during dew and frost periods is due to emission of additional longwave radiation from water and ice crystals formed mainly on the upper dome of the net radiometer, to the upper sensor of the Q*7.1 net radiometer. In contrast, during the snowy day of 24 February 2000, the Rn,unvent. was less than Rn,vent. (-4.00 MJ m-2 vs. 0.77 MJ m-2, mainly from sunrise to sunset). The extremely low Rn,unvent. measured by the non-ventilated net radiometer on 24 February 2000 is due to blocking of the incoming solar radiation (mainly diffuse radiation) by the snow-covered upper dome.

Impacts
The effects of dew formation and frost deposition are opposite of the effect of snow accumulation on the upper dome of a non-ventilated radiometer. While dew and frost formation increase the net radiation readings, snow accumulation reduces the readings made by a non-ventilated net radiometer, compared to the ventilated one. The early morning dew and frost usually evaporate during the day in our region (a semi-arid mountainous valley), except during extremely cold weather, when the frost will last for a couple of days. If dew and frost last for many days (as in tropical and Arctic regions, respectively), then the net radiation readings by a non-ventilated net radiometer will be erroneous, and a ventilated net radiometer is a necessity. A power generator for Arctic region, can provide the required energy for heating the ventilating air. During extremely cold weather, we experienced that the lower dome of the non-ventilated radiometer could be partially or totally covered by thinner frost (compared to the upper dome), but still the non-ventilated radiometer showed a higher readings compared the ventilated one.

Publications

• Malek, E. 2000. Winter time radiation and energy balance components and cloudiness in a mountainous valley. Preprint: Amer. Meteorol. Soc., Ninth Conf. Mountain Meteorol., 386-391.
• Malek, E. 2000. Measurement of the radiation balance components during snowy events. Abstract in: XXV European Geophys. Soc. Millennium Con., Nice, France 25-29 April 2000.

Progress 01/01/99 to 12/31/99

Outputs
Although dew is an unimportant source of moisture in humid areas, plants and arthropods living in some arid regions depend on it for survival. Further, this moisture is occasionally available during the dry summer months when plants are experiencing the greatest stress. To assess dew contribution to the annual water balances in semi-arid desert valleys, we conducted two experiments; one in a heterogeneous semi-arid desert valley in northeastern Nevada, U.S.A. (Site A), and the other one in an irrigated homogeneous alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) field of a semi-arid desert valley in central Utah, U.S.A. (Site B). Both sites are located in the Great Basin, Western U.S.A. Site A is considered as a closed desert valley with precipitation as the only source of water. There is no supply of water from adjacent areas or from below the root zone (due to the existance of hard pans). On the other hand, precipitation, irrigation, and a limited amount of groundwater are sources of water at Site B. Results indicate the cumulative amount of evapotranspiration (ETa) at the end of the 1993-1994 water year (starting 1 October 1993) at Site A was greater than the amount of precipitation (about 160 mm/y vs 131 mm/y). Knowing that Site A is a closed desert valley, the only source of additional ETa (about 29 mm) is related to the formation of dew or trace precipitation (which is not recorded). Our analyses show that dew contributed about 14 mm to the annual water balance of the semi-arid desert valley at Site A. The cumulative ETa, precipitation, and irrigation amounted to about 1004 mm/y, 320 mm/y and 595 mm/y, respectively, during 1996 (starting 1 January) at Site B. The ETa was about 89 mm greater than (precipitation + irrigation) at this site. Dew and frost contribution to the annual water balance at this site was about 29 mm/y. Contribution from the ground-water (about 50 mm/y) and trace precipitation closed the water balance at this site. The method used can be applied to any ecosystem to assess dew (amount, duration, frequency) and its impacts on plants and animal lives.

Impacts
Dew was shown to have the potential to help plants survive in a closed desert environment. Under irrigation, the frequent occurrence of dew during the irrigation season, and the length of dew occurrence, as long as 14 h/night, do affect plants under local semi-arid climatic conditions. These effects could be beneficial (as a source of moisture for growth) or harmful (as a source of moisture which may facilitate fungal and bacterial plant disease and pest development).

Publications

• Malek, E., McCurdy, G., Giles, B. 1999. Dew contribution to the annual water balances in semi-arid desert valleys. J. Arid. Environ. 42:71-80.
• Malek, E. 1999. A cloud scheme for the downscaled GCMs. Amer. Geophy. Union 1999 Spring Meeting, Boston, MA, 1-4 June 1999.
• Malek, E. 1999. Regional-scale surface water and energy fluxes in an inhomogeneous desert valley. 3rd Internat. Conf. Global Energy and Water Cycle, Beijing, China, 16-19 June 1999.
• Malek, E. 1999. Irrigation season water balance at the Hunter and Huntinbton Research Farms and the Huntington Upper Field. Utah Agric. Stn. Rpt. 159 (Part II). Utah State Univ., 54 pp.

Progress 01/01/98 to 12/31/98

Outputs
Saline waste water coming from the evaporation of fresh water in the cooling towers of the Utah Power & Light Company (PacifiCorp) electrical power plant has been applied at the Hunter Research Farm (Farm) in central Utah, U.S.A., since 1987 to irrigate the agricultural crops. The goals of this environmentally-safe study are to get rid of this wastewater by maximizing crop evapotranspiration, minimizing runoff from the soil surface, and minimizing leaching to the groundwater by applying the top-of-the line technology and precision management of the irrigation practices. We have used the Bowen ratio system to study the daily, growing season, and annual water balance of an alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) field irrigated with saline . Our studies thus far have shown that by monitoring the amount, time, and frequency of irrigation during the past 11 year's irrigation seasons, no surface runoff (which pollutes the river fresh water) or deep percolation (which pollutes the ground water) occurred, and that alfalfa transpiration and yield are likely to decrease only slightly for the coming years if saline waste water continues to be used for irrigation. Key words: Bowen ratio system, evapotranspiration, saline wastewater, water balance.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

• -Malek, E. 1998. Detecting and quantifying dew in semi-arid irrigated and desert valleys. Proc. First Internat. Conf. on Fog and Fog Collection. Internat. Develop. Research Center, Oyyawa, Canada, 253-256. -Malek, E. 1998. Cloud parameterization in a semi-arid valley. Sixth Internat. Conf. on Precip.: Predictability of Rainfall at the Various Scales. Mauna Lani BAy, Hawaii, U.S.A., June 29 - July 1, 1998. -Malek, E. 1998. Irrigation Seaon water balance at the Hunter and Huntington Research Farms and at the Huntinton Upper Field. Utah Egric. Exp. Stn., Res. Rpt. 157 (Part II), Utah State Univ.

Progress 01/01/97 to 12/31/97

Outputs
Radiation and energy balance components are required to validate global, regional, and local scale models representing surface heat flux relationships in the heterogeneous surfaces of the world's arid and desert regions. Research was conducted in northeastern Nevada, U.S.A., in a Great Basin inhomogeneous semi-arid desert valley located at 40 deg. 44' N, 114 deg. 26' W, with elevation of 1707 m above mean sea level, to study the daily, monthly, and annual mesoscale radiation and energy balance components. We established five radiation stations along with five Bowen ratio systems to measure the incoming (Rsi) and outgoing (Rso) solar (shortwave) radiation, net (Rn) radiation, air temperatures and moisture at one and two meters above the ground, the aggregated (soil + vegetation) surface temperature, soil heat flux at 8 cm (three locations at each station), soil temperatures at two and six cm above each soil flux plate, wind speed and direction at 10 m, and precipitation (if any) every five seconds averaged into 20 minutes throughout the valley during the 93-94 water year (beginning with 1 October). Our study during the 93-94 water year showed that albedo (Rso/Rsi) ranged from 85 % (snow-covered surface) to 10 % (cloudy skies with wet surface) among stations. The water year total incoming solar radiation (averaged among stations) amounted to 6.33*103 MJ.m-2 and about 24% of that was reflected back to the atmosphere. The net longwave radiation (Rln = Rlo - Rli) was about 32% of Rsi. Rlo and Rli are the terrestrial (outgoing) and atmospheric (incoming) longwave radiation, respectively. The 93-94 water-year average net radiation (Rn) among stations amounted to 2.68 *103 MJ.m-2 (about 44% of Rsi). About 85.3 % and 14.6 % of Rn were used for the processes of sensible (H) and latent (LE) heat fluxes, respectively. The annual Rn contribution to the surface soil heat flux (Gsurf) was almost 0.1%. The monthly and annual relationships among radiation and energy balance components are also reported. Having just one pyranometer and these relationships, one can estimate the daily, monthly, and annual values of Rso, Rn, Rln, LE, H, and Gsurf. We have made a major step toward being able to estimate net radiation of heterogeneous desert landscape based on vegetation cover and irradiance levels. The results can be applied to any similar closed desert basin in Australia, the Great Basin in the U.S.A., the Middle East, and North Africa.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

• Malek, E. 1997. Evaluation of effective atmospheric emissivity and parameterization of cloud at local scale. Atmos. Research. 45/1: 41-54.
• Malek, E. and Bingham, G. E. 1997. Partioning of radiation and energy balance components in an inhomogeneous arid desert valley. J. Arid Env. 37: 193-207.
• Malek, E., Bingham, G. E., Or, D., and McCurdy, G.D. 1997. Annual mesoscale study of water balance in a Great Basin heterogeneous desert valley. J. Hydrol. 191: 223-244.

Progress 01/01/96 to 12/30/96

Outputs
Research has been conducted near the Logan Airport, Logan, Utah, since October 1995 to measure the radiation components continuously over a partially wheatgrass-covered area. The main purpose of this research is comparisons between the measured incoming longwave (atmospheric) radiation, measured by pyrgeometer, with that computed by Brutsaert's formula. Data analysis showed very good agreement between the measured and computed atmospheric radiation during cloudless periods. During cloudy conditions, the measured atmospheric radiation is greater than that computed by Brutsaert's formula. The additional longwave radiation during the cloudy skies comes from clouds in the waveband which the gaseous emission lacks, i.e. from 8 to 13 #m (the so-called atmospheric window). We proposed an approach which uses the thermodynamic concepts and some climatic parameters to parameterize cloud at local scale. Based upon the proposed method, the cloud base height, cloud base temperature, and percent of sky covered by cloud can be evaluated continuously for any location without introducing any empirical and local constants. Using the satellite link (i.e., the NOAA GOES West satellite) we can expand this approach to regional scale. The satellite link will allow constant monitoring of the radiation systems' performance, maintenance scheduling on an "as needed" basis, and evaluation of clouds at larger scale.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

• Malek, E. 1994. Calibration of the Penman wind function using the Bowen ratio-energy balance method. J. Hydrol. 163: 289-298.
• Abballa, S.H., Neale, C.M.U., Malek, E., Hipps, L.E., and Bingham, G.E. 1996. Estimation of net radiation of sparse vegetation using multispectral video imagery. Proc., 16th Ann. Amer. Geophys. Un. Hydrol. Days Publ. 1 - 12.
• Malek, E. 1996. Irrigation season water balance at the Hunter and Huntington Research Farms and the Huntington Upper field. Utah State Univ. Res. Rpt. 156 (Part II). Utah State Univ., 59 pp.
• Malek, E., Bingham, G. E., and Or, D. 1996. Mesoscale study of radiation and water balances in a Great Basin heterogeneous semi-arid valley. Presented at the European Geophysical Society XXI General Assembly, the Hague (the Netherlands),
• Malek, E., Bingham, G. E., and Or, D. 1996. Water balance in a desert valley.Presented at the Second International Scientific Conference on the Global and Water Cycle. US National Academy of Sciences. Washington, D.C., 17-21 June 1996.

Progress 01/01/95 to 12/30/95

Outputs
We studied the annual mesoscale water balance in northeastern Nevada, U.S.A., ina Great Basin heterogeneous semi-arid desert valley (the Goshute Valley) at 40deg. 44' N, 114deg. 26' W, with elevation of 1707 m above the mean sea level. This north-south oriented flat valley has an area of about 1113 km2 and is partially covered mostly by sagebrush, greasewood, shadscale, desert molly, wheat grass, and winter fat bushes. During the 1993-1994 dry water year (beginning with 1 October) the average amount of aggregated (soil + bushes) evapotranspiration (ETa) among stations measured by the BREB method was almost equal to the average total precipitation for the entire valley (160.9 mm vs. 157.7 mm, respectively). All stations showed slight water losses (ETa > precipitation) in the 1993-94 dry water year except at station #2 where water gain was about 31.1 mm. The 1993-94 water losses at stations #1, 3, 4, and 5 were 29.7, 7.5, 8.1 and 2 mm, respectively. The additional water for the process of evapotranspiration at these stations may be due to extraction of moisture from the air during the cool early mornings throughout the water year or to extraction of moisture from the soil. A set of relationships between the incoming solar and net radiation, surface and 2 m air temperatures, and surface and 8 cm soil heat fluxes among stations were also developed. This study showed how the mesoscale water balance was achieved during a dry water year in a desert valley.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

• Hipps, L. E., Or, D. and E. Malek. 1995. Spatial distribution of latent heat flux over a sparsely vegetated arid region. In the 1995 Spring Meeting publication of Amer. Geophys. Union. Baltimore, MD. May 29 - 2 June 1995, page S104.
• Malek, E. 1995. Irrigation season water balance at the Castle Dale and Huntington Research Farms and the Huntington Upper field. Utah State Univ. Res. Rpt. 153 (Part II). Utah State Univ., 96 pp.
• Malek, E., G. E. Bingham and L. E. Hipps. 1995. Annual mesoscale study of radiation components in a Great Basin Desert Valley. In the 1995 Spring Meeting Publication of Amer. Geophys. Union. Baltimore, MD. May 29 - 2 June 1995, page S104.
• Malek, E., Bingham, G. E., C. M. U. Neale, L. E. Hipps, J.L. Boettinger, D. Or, and D. A. Quattrochi. 1995. The west desert surface heat flux study: net radiation at local and regional scales.

Progress 01/01/94 to 12/30/94

Outputs
The Bowen ratio-energy balance (BREB) and the stability-corrected aerodynamic method were used to estimate turbulent fluxes of sensible and latent heat at an irrigated alfalfa site in a semi-arid valley in northern Utah, U.S.A., during August and September of 1991. Despite inclusion of a generalized stability factor, the aerodynamic method underestimated the daytime (sunrise-sunset) sensible and latent heat fluxes by approximately 30% in comparison with the BREB method. The sum of the aerodynamic estimates of sensible and latent heat seldom balanced the energy available from net radiation and change in storage. Wind speed was low during the experiment (averaging 1.6 m s-1), and so a second analysis was run for data from daytime, non-rainy, turbulent conditions (wind > 1.5 m s-1). This showed that sensible and latent heat were still underestimated by approximately 30% in comparison with the BREB approach. This suggests that underestimation of sensible and latent heat fluxes by the aerodynamic method was not related to the wind speed conditions during the experiment. These results show that the stability-corrected aerodynamic model did not agree with the Bowen ratio method in this experiment. It appears unlikely that the discrepancies resulted from measurement errors. Perhaps the theoretical foundation of the similarity parameters (stability functions) in the aerodynamic model are not sufficiently generalized. The discrepancies found here confirm the necessity of calibration checks on the validit.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

• MALEK, E. 1993. Comparison of the Bowen ratio-energy balance and stability-corrected and aerodynamic methods for measurement of evapotranspiration. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 48:167-178.
• MALEK, E. 1994. Estimation of energy, momentum, and water fluxes in a semi-Arid Valley. The XIX General Assembly of the European Geophysical Society. Grenoble, France. April, 1994.