Progress 07/01/07 to 06/30/12

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Over 40 field and laboratory experiments were conducted over the five-year period at various locations in eastern Washington State to evaluate: a) controlled release and conventional N fertilizer source, placement and application timing treatments for winter and spring wheat production; b) alternative N sources and management for dryland grass seed production; c) legume green manure and other alternative N sources (e.g., biosolids) for organic and conventional dryland crop rotations; and d) phosphorus, sulfur and micronutrient requirements and responses in wheat and green peas. Results from these trials were disseminated face-to-face to over 3500 growers and fertilizer industry personnel in 43 separate grower/industry seminars, field days, trainings, and/or regional meetings. Twelve peer-reviewed journal articles, five Extension bulletins and a variety of abstracts, proceedings, articles and professional meeting presentations were developed. The program regularly provided support in the form of information and diagnostic interpretations of soil, plant tissue and water sample analyses for members of the agricultural industry (mainly fertilizer dealers and analytical laboratories). The program trained eleven undergraduate students, five of which completed in-depth undergraduate research projects. Two of the five published their work in peer-reviewed scientific journals (Ingle et al., 2010; Proctor et al., 2010) and continued on to pursue graduate studies at Texas A&M University and the University of Nebraska. The program trained five MS students and one PhD. In total, these students published six peer-reviewed scientific journal articles. Three of the five MS students went on to pursue PhD degrees. The most significant output and dissemination activities (not including publications) include: i) developing decision support tools to supplement guides intended to refine fertilizer management decisions; ii) participating in five separate, regional industry training events at which over 100 crop consultants attended sessions to learn about the four major focal areas of this project; iii) seven invitations from major agriculture industry and federal agency entities to conduct in-depth training of their personnel on key soil and agriculture topics; iv) three articles recognized in the following venues: one article cited by HortScience as one of the "Top 10 articles read in December 2010", one article highlighted in Horticulture Week in 2010, and one highlighted in a Science Daily news release in 2009. PARTICIPANTS: Industry collaborators: Cenex, Simplot, The McGregor Company, Wilbur-Ellis, Agrotaine International; and Agrium. Additional research collaborators include Drs. Lyndon Porter, USDA-ARS; Craig Cogger, Bill Pan, Ian Burke, Pat Fuerst, Bill Johnston, WSU-CSS; Aaron Esser, Paul Carter, and Steve VanVleet, WSU Extension; Clive Kaiser, OSU Extension; D Huggins, USDA-ARS. Students: Chris Proctor, WSU MS Student; Haly Ingle, WSU BS and MS Student; Kristy Borelli, WSU MS and PhD Student ; A total of eleven undergraduate students participated in this research; two published results of their work in peer-reviewed journals. TARGET AUDIENCES: Farmers and agriculture industry personnel are the main target audience for this work. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
This research provided valuable basic nutrient management data for improving nutrient use on dryland crops to improve economic returns and reduce losses of nutrients to air and water. Specific outcomes and impacts across four dimensions of this five-year project include: a) Yield, grain protein and N use efficiency in dryland wheat production systems is enhanced when historic fertilizer calculation regimes are informed by soil testing to develop fertilizer recommendations, by in-season evaluation of crop N status, and by post-harvest evaluation of crop performance. Based on input from fertilizer industry consultants, over 100 growers have adopted improved N management practices. One field consultant reports that growers are consistently achieving yield and protein goals with hard wheat grown on over 10,000 acres in SE Washington. Post-harvest sampling indicates growers are leaving minimal residual N in the soil profile after harvest, suggesting high use efficiencies. Growers are more consistently meeting protein goals for hard wheat through fertilizer timing and rate management. Based on recent discounts of $0.20 per 0.25% for hard red spring wheat protein below 14%, foliar application practices represent a significant economic return of $0.80 to $1.20/bushel, or $40 to $60/acre for a 50 bushel/acre yield level relative to a cost of approximately $10/acre. Based on average protein responses this program has netted growers approximately $400,000 per year. b) As much as 40% of N applied to dryland grass seed production systems as urea is lost through volatilization as ammonia. Appropriately timing urea-based N applications and/or using stabilizers (urease inhibitors) reduced N loss to nothing and improved seed yields up to 20% (250 lbs/ac). In 2009, industry retrofitted a fertilizer plant in north Idaho to treat urea with a urease inhibitor. We estimate we have influenced urea-N management practices on 8,000 acres of dryland grass seed with an average impact of $1.2M annually and a reduction in N loss to the atmosphere of approximately 45,000 lbs. c) More intensive green manure management during the transition to certified organic production led to improved weed control and 20 to 30% higher spring and winter wheat grain yields. Biosolids applications resulted in 0 to 21 bu/acre higher winter wheat grain yields than inorganic N fertilizer alone. d) Phosphorus use in low rainfall areas of eastern Washington is limited since growers generally do not believe it is an economical investment. Results of this research showed yields of winter wheat could be increased by 2 to 10 bushels/acre (8 to 33%) using appropriate phosphorus management. Twenty-three growers in the low rainfall zone now routinely use P fertilizer. Two of these confirmed yield increases on the order of 2 to 4 bushels/acre/year; one noted secondary benefits of reduced weed pressure and better erosion control. Based on average yield increases of 3 bushels/acre, $5/bushel for winter wheat, and estimated acreages to which this practice has been applied, the impact of this program is estimated at $400,000 per year.

Publications

• Koenig, R.T., A. Esser, A., and S. VanVleet. 2008. Phosphorus source effects on dryland winter wheat in eastern Washington. In Larry Murphy (Ed), Proceedings of the Fluid Fertilizer Forum, Scottsdale, AZ.
• Jones, C., R. Koenig, J. Ellsworth, G. Jackson and B. Brown. 2007. Urea fertilizer management guide. EB 173, Tri-State Extension publication (MT-ID-WA), 12 p.
• Koenig, R.T., C. Proctor, W. Johnston and C. Golob. 2007. Urea and ammonia volatilization in dryland grass seed systems. Pp 65-70 in J. Hart (Ed) Proceedings of the Western Nutrient Management Conference, March 8-9, Salt Lake City, UT.
• Koenig, R.T. 2007. Phosphorus dynamics and wheat response to applied P in a spatially variable environment. Pp 153-157 in J. Hart (Ed) Proceedings of the Western Nutrient Management Conference, March 8-9, Salt Lake City, UT.
• Pan W., W. Schillinger, D. Huggins, R.T. Koenig, J. Burns. 2007. Fifty years of predicting wheat N requirements based on soil water, yield, protein and N efficiency. In: T. Bruulsema (Ed). Managing Crop N for Weather. Proceedings of the symposium Integrating Weather Variability into N Recommendations. International Plant Nutrition Institute, Norcross, GA.
• Ott-Borrelli, K., R.T. Koenig, R. Gallagher, D. Pittman, A. Snyder, E. P. Fuerst, I.C. Burke and L. Hoagland. 2012. Alternative Strategies for Transitioning to Organic Production in Direct-Seeded Grain Systems in Eastern Washington II: N Fertility. J. Sustain. Agr. 36:461-477.
• Koenig, R., K. Schroeder, A. Carter, M. Pumphrey, T. Paulitz, K. Campbell and Dave Huggins. 2011. Soil acidity and aluminum toxicity in the Palouse region of the Pacific Northwest. WSU Extension Fact Sheet FS050E.
• Koenig, R.T., A.W. Hammac and W.L. Pan. 2011. Canola growth, development and fertility. WSU Extension Fact Sheet FS045E.
• Shewmaker, G.E., R.T. Koenig, D. Horneck, M. Bohle, G. Cardon, and S. Jensen. 2010. Soils, fertility, and nutrient management for pastures. Chapter 3 in Pasture and Grazing Management in the Northwest, PNW Bulletin 0614, University of Idaho Cooperative Extension, Moscow.
• Fuerst, E.P., R.T. Koenig, J. Kugler, K.M. Painter, M.E. Stannard, M.E., and J. Goldberger. 2009. Organic alfalfa management guide. EB2039E, 24 p.
• Grossl, P. S. Trolove, R.T. Koenig and C. Jones. 2009. Phosphorus dynamics in organic matter-amended soils. In R. Flynn (Ed) Proceedings of the Western Nutrient Management Conference, March 4-5, Salt Lake City, UT.
• Hammac, W.A., W. Pan, R. Bolton and R.T. Koenig. 2009. High resolution imaging on in situ root hair development to assess oilseed species responses to water stress. Paper No. 1395, International Plant nutrition colloquium, university of California, Davis. http://repositories.cdlib.org/ipnc/xvi/1395.
• Koenig, R.T., D. Horneck, T.E. Platt, P.J. Petersen, R.G Stevens, S.C. Fransen, and B. Brown. 2009. Nutrient management guide for dryland and irrigated alfalfa in inland northwest. PNW Bulletin 0611, Washington State University, 16 p.

Progress 01/01/11 to 12/31/11

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Improved nitrogen (N) management is essential for the long-term economic and environmental sustainability of wheat production in Washington, particularly given recent volatility in fertilizer prices and emphasis on alternatives to fertilizer N. The goal of this project is to improve crop N use efficiency, leading to more profitable and environmentally-sound fertilizer management for dryland farmers in eastern Washington. Experiments were continued in eastern Washington to evaluate: a) alternative N sources and stabilizing agents for dryland grass seed production; and b) foliar applications of N at anthesis as a protein management strategy in wheat. (a) Ammonia volatilization from urea broadcast on dryland grass seed stands exceeded 40% of the N applied when urea was not stabilized with a nitrification inhibitor. Loss was an average of 15% for urea treated with a nitrification inhibitor or fluid urea ammonium nitrate. Grass seed yields generally reflected the influence of N source on ammonia loss and were an average of 28% lower with untreated urea. (b) Foliar N (20 lb/acre) applied at anthesis increased grain protein concentration 1.0 to 1.5% in hard spring wheat in 2010 and 2011 when seasonal conditions (cool, moist) favored foliar absorption of N applied at the time of flowering. Importantly, the type of adjuvant mixed with foliar N appeared to have a major impact on both foliar absorption and leaf burn. One first-authored manuscript was published on the effects of biosolids and inorganic N rates on dryland wheat yield and grain protein content. Biosolids applications resulted in 0 to 21 bu/acre higher winter wheat grain yields than inorganic N fertilizer alone regardless of the N rate, indicating that other nutrients in the biosolids or perhaps N mineralization rates had a positive effect on dryland wheat. One co-authored manuscript with a PhD student was accepted for publication. This manuscript characterized N cycling and the N balance from various dryland crop rotations during the transition to certified organic production. Results were communicated to over 300 growers and industry personnel (testing lab, crop consultants, sales) in six seminars and crop schools. In addition, two extension bulletins were published. PARTICIPANTS: Industry collaborators: Jerry Zahl, Cenex/Harvest States; Stephen Reinertsen and Bruce Palmer, The McGregor Company; John Hassell, Agtotain International; Terry Tindall, Simplot Company; Alan Blaylock, Agrium. Additional research collaborators: Lyndon Porter, USDA-ARS; Bill Johnston, WSU-CSS; Clive Kaiser, OSU Extension. Students: Kristy Borelli, WSU PhD Student TARGET AUDIENCES: Farmers and agriculture industry personnel are the main target audience for this work. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
Nitrogen fertilizer prices have recently fluctuated by as much as 200% due to increases in energy costs and to the regional, national, and world supply-demand situation. Recent prices for wheat and other minor rotational crops have also fluctuated widely. Variable fertilizer and crop prices require a re-evaluation of N management strategies and economics for crop production. This research is providing valuable basic N response data for use in economic modeling to determine optimum fertilizer rates and risk associated with N management for dryland crops. Results suggest ways to improve N use efficiency by soil testing and appropriate fertilizer management practices, including use of alternative fertilizer sources and stabilization of sources subject to gaseous loss. Specific outcomes and impacts are reported in two areas: i) Yield, grain protein and N use efficiency in dryland wheat production systems is enhanced when historic fertilizer calculation regimes are informed by soil testing to develop fertilizer recommendations, by in-season evaluation of crop N status, and by post-harvest evaluation of crop performance. One field consultant in southeastern Washington State reports growers are consistently achieving yield and protein goals with hard wheat on over 10,000 acres. Post-harvest sampling in these fields also indicates growers are leaving minimal N in the soil profile after harvest, suggesting high use efficiencies and low potential for N loss; and ii) As much as 40% of N applied to dryland grass seed production systems as urea is lost through volatilization as ammonia. Appropriately timing urea-based N applications and/or using stabilizers (urease inhibitors) reduced N loss to 0 to 15% and improved seed yields up to 28% (230 lb/ac). In 2009, fertilizer industry reported adoption of the use of N timing and urea stabilizer recommendations on 8,000 acres of dryland grass seed in eastern Washington and northern Idaho, potentially saving $1.2M annually and reducing N loss to the atmosphere by approximately 45,000 lb. At the same time, a major fertilizer supplier in eastern Washington State retrofitted a plant to treat urea with a urease enzyme inhibitor to reduce ammonia volatilization. Since then they have routinely treated over 2,000 acres of grass seed with stabilized urea. The company has also since expanded and began stabilizing spring-applied urea for topdress applications on winter wheat.

Publications

• Koenig, R.T., C.G.Cogger, and A.I.Bary. 2011. Dryland winter wheat yield, grain protein and soil nitrogen responses to fertilizer and biosolids applications. Applied and Environmental Soil Science 2011(925462):9.

Progress 01/01/10 to 12/31/10

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Improved nitrogen management is essential for the long-term economic and environmental sustainability of wheat production in Washington, particularly given recent volatility in fertilizer prices. The goal of this project is to improve crop nitrogen use efficiency, leading to more profitable and environmentally sound fertilizer management for dryland farmers in eastern Washington. Experiments were continued in 2010 at four locations in eastern Washington to evaluate: a) controlled release and conventional nitrogen fertilizer source, placement and application timing treatments for winter and spring wheat production; b) alternative nitrogen sources for dryland grass seed production; and c) legume green manure and other alternative nitrogen sources for organic dryland crop rotations. (a) There were few differences between controlled release and conventional forms of urea fertilizer on winter wheat yield. Grain yield and protein responses to total N supply (soil + fertilizer) suggest current unit nitrogen supply requirements of 2.7, 3.0 and 3.6 lb N/bushel for soft white, hard white/hard red winter, and hard red spring, respectively, are valid. Hard red winter wheat yield can be increased with spring topdress applications of nitrogen, and hard spring wheat grain protein can be increased with in-season applications of foliar nitrogen. Studies indicate yield and protein responses to nitrogen are highly dependent on residual soil N amount and location, emphasizing the importance of yield-based nitrogen recommendations and knowledge of pre-fertilization soil nitrogen levels. Controlled release fertilizers can be placed with the seed at very high rates without reducing germination and seedling emergence. (b) Grass seed yields in 2007 - 2010 varied by location, N source, and timing of application. Yield differences among N sources could often be explained by NH3 volatilization potential measured the preceding fall. Results indicate potential for NH3 volatilization and grass seed yield reductions with urea-based N forms. However, proper management such as timing of application to coincide with a rainfall event or using a stabilized form of urea has the potential to reduce volatilization and promote more efficient urea-N use and higher grass seed yields. (c) Legume and biosolids-based fertility improved yields of dryland wheat in organic and conventional dryland production systems. More intensive green manure management during the transition to certified organic production led to higher spring and winter wheat grain yields. Biosolids applications resulted in 0 to 21 bu/acre higher winter wheat grain yields than inorganic N fertilizer alone. Results were communicated to over 700 growers and fertilizer industry personnel (testing lab personnel, field consultants, sales personnel) in 9 seminars and crop schools. In addition, one extension bulletin and five peer-reviewed research articles were produced. PARTICIPANTS: Industry collaborators: Jerry Zahl, Cenex/Harvest States; Stephen Reinertsen and Bruce Palmer, The McGregor Company; John Hassell, Agtotain International; Terry Tindall, Simplot Company; Alan Blaylock, Agrium. Additional research collaborators: Lyndon Porter, USDA-ARS; Bill Johnston, WSU-CSS; Clive Kaiser, OSU Extension. Students: Chris Proctor, WSU MS Student; Haly Ingle, WSU MS Student; Kristy Ott, WSU PhD Student; Megan Alcot, WSU UG Student; Kelsie Alcot, WSU UG Student. TARGET AUDIENCES: Growers and agricultural industry personnel (crop consultants, fertilizer dealers, extension faculty, and regulatory agency personnel) are the primary target audiences for this work. Additional audiences include other scientists conducting research in this and closely related fields. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
Nitrogen fertilizer prices have recently increased as much as 200% due to increases in energy costs and world supply-demand situation. Recent prices for wheat and other commodity and minor crops have also fluctuated widely. Variable fertilizer and crop prices require a re-evaluation of nitrogen management strategies and economics for crop production. This research is providing valuable basic N response data for use in economic modeling to determine optimum fertilizer rates and risk associated with nitrogen management for dryland crops. Results suggest ways to improve nitrogen use efficiency by soil testing and appropriate fertilizer management practices, including use of alternative fertilizer sources. Economic returns to conventional farmers would be improved by considering the price of nitrogen fertilizer and wheat when the fertilizer rate is being calculated in a given year and production situation. Examples of specific outcomes and impacts are reported in two areas: i) Enhancing yield and nitrogen use efficiency in dryland wheat production systems. To meet historic unit nitrogen supply requirements for achieving maximum yield and grain protein targets in dryland wheat production, the emphasis must be on soil testing to develop fertilizer recommendations for winter and spring wheat. In the absence of soil testing it is not possible to consistently achieve yield and protein targets, particularly for hard wheat market classes. One field consultant in southeastern Washington State reports growers are consistently achieving yield and protein goals with hard wheat on over 10,000 production acres. Post-harvest sampling in these fields also indicates growers are leaving minimal nitrogen in the soil profile after harvest, suggesting high efficiencies and low potential for nitrogen loss; and ii) Enhancing yield and reducing nitrogen losses from dryland grass seed systems. As much as 40% of N applied to dryland grass seed production systems as urea is lost through volatilization as ammonia. Appropriately timing urea-based N applications and/or using stabilizers (urease inhibitors) reduced nitrogen loss to almost nothing and improved seed yields up to 20%. The economic impact of this research is significant considering that grass seed is valued at $1 per pound; therefore, economic impacts on a per-acre basis would range up to $250/acre. In 2010, the fertilizer industry reported adoption of the use of nitrogen timing and urea stabilizer recommendations on 8,000 acres of dryland grass seed in eastern Washington and northern Idaho. Based on the results of this research, the economic impact of adoption may exceed $1.5 M. Application of this research also reduced ammonia losses to the atmosphere by 160,000 lbs of nitrogen.

Publications

• Ingle, H., R.T.Koenig, C.A.Miles, T.Koenig, and M.Karlsson. 2010. Diurnal fluctuation in tissue nitrate concentration of field-grown leafy greens at two latitudes. HortScience : A Publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science. 45(12):1815-1818.
• Proctor, C., R.T.Koenig, and W.J.Johnston. 2010. Potential for ammonia volatilization from ures in dryland Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) seed production systems. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. 41:320-331.
• Ingle, H., R.T.Koenig, and M.Stowe. 2010. The Effect of Seed-Row Placement of Conventional and Polymer-Coated Urea on Winter Wheat Emergence. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. 41:887-896.
• Gallagher, R.S., D.Pittmann, A.Snyder, R.T.Koenig, E.P.Fuerst, I.Burke, and L.A.Hoagland. 2010. Alternative Strategies for Transitioning to Organic Production in Direct-Seeded Grain Systems in Eastern Washington I: Crop Agronomy. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 34:483-503.
• Hammac, A., W.L.Pan, R.P.Bolton, and R.T.Koenig. 2010. A High Resolution Imaging System to Assess Root Hair Development of Oilseed Crops in Response to Water Stress. Plant and Soil.

Progress 01/01/09 to 12/31/09

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Improved nitrogen management is essential for the long-term economic and environmental sustainability of wheat production, particularly given recent spikes in fertilizer prices. The goal of this project is to improve crop nitrogen use efficiency, leading to more profitable and environmentally sound fertilizer management for dryland farmers in eastern Washington. Experiments were conducted in 2004 -2009 at various locations in eastern Washington to evaluate: a) controlled release and conventional nitrogen fertilizer sources, placement and application timing treatments for winter and spring wheat production; b) alternative nitrogen sources for dryland grass seed production; and c) legume green manure and other alternative nitrogen sources for organic dryland crop rotations. (a) There were few differences between controlled release and conventional forms of urea fertilizer on winter wheat. Grain yield and protein responses to total N supply (soil + fertilizer) suggest current unit nitrogen supply requirements of 2.7, 3.0 and 3.6 lb N/bushel for soft white winter, hard white/hard red winter, and hard red spring, respectively, are valid. Hard red winter wheat yield can be increased with spring topdress applications of nitrogen, and spring wheat grain protein can be increased with in-season applications of foliar nitrogen. Studies indicate yield and protein responses to nitrogen are highly dependent on residual soil N and location, emphasizing the importance of yield-based nitrogen recommendations and knowledge of pre-fertilization soil nitrogen levels. (b) Grass seed yields in 2007 - 2009 varied by location, N source, and timing of application. Yield differences among N sources could often be explained by NH3 volatilization potential measured the preceding fall. Results indicate potential for NH3 volatilization and grass seed yield reductions with urea-based N forms. However, proper management such as timing of application to coincide with a rainfall event or using a stabilized form of urea has the potential to reduce volatilization and promote more efficient urea-N use and higher grass seed yields. (c) Legume and biosolids-based fertility improved yields of dryland wheat in organic and conventional dryland production systems. More intensive green manure management during the transition to certified organic production led to higher spring and winter wheat grain yields. Biosolids applications resulted in 0 to 21 bu/acre higher winter wheat grain yields than inorganic N fertilizer alone. Results were communicated to over 1000 growers and fertilizer industry personnel (testing lab personnel, field consultants, sales personnel) in 11 seminars and crop schools. In addition, two extension bulletins and four peer-reviewed research articles were produced. PARTICIPANTS: Industry collaborators: Jerry Zahl, Cenex/Harvest States; Stephen Reinertsen and Bruce Palmer, The McGregor Company; John Hassell, Agtotain International; Terry Tindall, Simplot Company; Alan Blaylock, Agrium. Additional research collaborators: Lyndon Porter, USDA-ARS; Bill Johnston, WSU-CSS; Clive Kaiser, OSU Extension. Students: Chris Proctor, WSU MS Student; Haly Ingle, WSU MS Student; Kristy Ott, WSU PhD Student; Megan Alcot, WSU UG Student; Kelsie Alcot, WSU UG Student. TARGET AUDIENCES: Farmers and agriculture industry personnel are the main target audience for this work. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
Nitrogen fertilizer prices have recently increased as much as 200% due to increases in energy costs and world supply-demand situations. Recent prices for wheat and other commodity and minor crops have also fluctuated widely. Variable fertilizer and crop prices require a re-evaluation of nitrogen management strategies and economics for crop production. This research is providing valuable basic N response data for use in economic modeling to determine optimum fertilizer rates and risk associated with nitrogen management for dryland crops. Results suggest ways to improve nitrogen use efficiency by soil testing, appropriate fertilizer rate and timing management, and use of alternative fertilizer sources. Economic returns to conventional farmers would be improved by considering the price of nitrogen fertilizer and wheat when the fertilizer rate is being calculated in a given year and production situation. Examples of specific outcomes and impacts are reported in two areas: i) enhancing yield and nitrogen use efficiency in dryland wheat production systems; and ii) enhancing yield and reducing nitrogen losses from dryland grass seed systems. (i) Research funded by this Hatch project and other extramural funds reaffirms the historic unit nitrogen supply requirements for achieving maximum yield and optimum grain protein targets in dryland wheat production, but emphasizes the importance of soil testing to develop fertilizer recommendations for winter and spring wheat. In the absence of soil testing it is nearly impossible to consistently achieve yield and protein targets, particularly for hard wheat market classes. Appropriate management of nitrogen application timing can improve spring and winter wheat yield 3 to 9 bu/acre. One field consultant in southeastern Washington State reports growers are consistently achieving yield and protein goals with hard wheat on over 10,000 production acres. Post-harvest sampling in these fields also indicates growers are leaving minimal nitrogen in the soil profile after harvest, suggesting high efficiencies and low potential for nitrogen loss. (ii) Research funded by this Hatch project and other extramural funds indicates as much as 20% of N applied to dryland grass seed production systems as urea is lost through volatilization as ammonia. Appropriately timing urea-based N applications and/or using stabilizers (urease inhibitors) reduced nitrogen loss to zero and improved seed yields 6 to 20% (120 to 225 lb/ac). The economic impact of this research is significant considering that grass seed is valued at $1 per pound; therefore, economic impacts on a per-acre basis would range from $100 to $200. In 2009, the fertilizer industry reported adoption of the use of our nitrogen timing and urea stabilizer recommendations on 4,000 acres of dryland grass seed in eastern Washington and northern Idaho. Based on the results of this research, the economic impact of adoption is $600,000 annually. Application of this research also reduced ammonia losses to the atmosphere by 80,000 lbs of nitrogen.

Publications

• Abi-Ghanem, R., L.A.Carpenter-Boggs, R.T.Koenig, C.D.Pannkuk, W.L.Pan, and R.Parker. 2009. Extension Education for Dryland Cropping Systems in Iraq. Journal of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Education. 38:133-139.
• Proctor, C., R.T.Koenig, and W.J.Johnston. 2009. Potential for ammonia volatilization from urea in dryland Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) seed production systems. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis.
• Ott, K., R.T.Koenig, and C.A.Miles. 2009. A comparison of rapid potentiometric and colorimetric methods for monitoring tissue nitrate concentrations in leafy green vegetables. HortTechnology. 19:439-444.
• Hammac, A., W.L.Pan, R.P.Bolton, and R.T.Koenig. 2009. High Resolution Imaging of in situ Root Hair Development to Assess Oilseed Species Responses to Water Stress. UC Davis: The Proceedings of the International Plant Nutrition Colloquium XVI. Retrieved from: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/7wj9b1gc. The Proceedings of the International Plant Nutrition Colloquium XVI. Retrieved from: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/7wj9b1gc. International Plant Nutrition Conference. August 2009. Sacramento, CA.

Progress 01/01/08 to 12/31/08

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Experiments were conducted in 2004-2008 at various locations in eastern Washington to evaluate: a) controlled release and conventional nitrogen fertilizer source, placement and application timing treatments for winter and spring wheat production; b) alternative nitrogen sources for dryland grass seed production; c) legume green manure and other alternative nitrogen sources for organic dryland crop rotations; and d) the influence of crop variety and winter production conditions on leafy green vegetable yield and nitrate concentration. (a) There were few differences between controlled release and conventional forms of urea fertilizer on winter wheat. Grain yield and protein responses to total N supply (soil + fertilizer) suggest current unit nitrogen supply requirements of 2.7, 3.0 and 3.6 lb N/bushel for soft white, hard white/hard red winter, and hard red spring, respectively, are valid. Hard red winter wheat yield can be increased with spring topdress applications of nitrogen, and spring wheat grain protein can be increased with in-season applications of foliar nitrogen. Studies indicate yield and protein responses to nitrogen are highly dependent on residual soil N and location, emphasizing the importance of yield-based nitrogen recommendations and knowledge of pre-fertilization soil nitrogen and organic matter levels. (b) Grass seed yields in 2007 and 2008 varied by location, N source, and timing of application. Yield differences among N sources could often be explained by NH3 volatilization potential measured after fertilizer application the preceding fall. (c) Legume and biosolids-based fertility can improve yields of dryland wheat in organic and conventional dryland production systems. More intensive green manure management during the transition to certified organic production led to higher spring and winter wheat grain yields. Biosolids applications resulted in 0 to 21 bu/acre higher winter wheat grain yields than inorganic N fertilizer alone. Overall, results of this study suggest ways to improve nitrogen use efficiency by soil testing, appropriate rate and timing management, and use of alternative fertilizer sources. Economic returns to conventional farmers could be improved by considering the price of nitrogen fertilizer and wheat when the fertilizer rate is being calculated in a given year and situation. (d)All varieties studied survived the winter even though ambient temperatures fell below 10o F for extended periods at Pullman (Vancouver was warmer). At both locations, productivity varied widely with fresh weight yields ranging from less than one-half to more than 3 ounces per plant. Generally, Asian greens yields were higher than spinach, while lettuce varieties had the lowest yield. The majority of varieties grown in Pullman had nitrate concentrations below European standards (the U.S. has no standards). Certain varieties grown in Vancouver had nitrate concentrations above European standards. PARTICIPANTS: Other participants include: Matthew Stowe, Kristy Ott, and Haly Ingle, Graduate Research Assistants; Carol Miles, faculty member in Horticulture/Landscape Architecture; Jerry Zahl, Walla Walla Farmers' Cooperative; Stephen Reinertsen, The McGregor Company. TARGET AUDIENCES: Growers and fertilizer industry representatives in eastern Washington. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Not relevant to this project.

Impacts
Nitrogen fertilizer prices have recently increased as much as 200% due to increases in energy costs and world supply-demand situation. Recent prices for wheat and other commodity crops have also fluctuated. Variable fertilizer and crop prices require a re-evaluation of nitrogen management strategies and economics for crop production. This research is providing valuable basic N response data for use in economic modeling to determine optimum fertilizer rates and risk associated with nitrogen management for dryland crops. This work has led to improved nitrogen management decisions by wheat growers and field consultants by basing decisions on sound economic analysis and risk. Results indicate potential for NH3 volatilization and lower grass seed yields with urea-based N forms compared to ammonium nitrate. However, proper management such as timing of application to coincide with a rainfall event or using a stabilized form or urea has the potential to reduce volatilization and promote more efficient urea-N use and higher grass seed yields. Fertility and production conditions affect nitrate concentration in winter vegetables. Variety selection, management of nutrient rate and harvest timing, and post-harvest processing can all be used to minimize the amount of nitrate consumed in fresh leafy vegetables.

Publications

• Koenig, R.T., D.Winward, C.Reid, J.Barnhill, M.Pace, and K.Heaton. 2008. Phosphorus Source and Surface Fluid Band Spacing Effects on Irrigated Alfalfa. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 73:1-8.
• Brown, T., R.T.Koenig, D.R.Huggins, J.B.Harsh, and R.Rossi. 2008. Lime effects on soil acidity, crop yield and aluminum chemistry in inland Pacific Northwest direct-seed cropping systems. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 72:634-640.
• Ott, K., R.T.Koenig, and C.A.Miles. 2008. Impacts of Plant Part on Nitrate Concentration in Leafy Greens. International Journal of Vegetable Science 14:351-361.

Progress 01/01/07 to 12/31/07

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Improved nitrogen management is essential for the long-term economic and environmental sustainability of wheat production in Washington. The goal of this project is to improve crop nitrogen use efficiency, leading to more profitable and environmentally-sound fertilizer management for dryland farmers in eastern Washington. Experiments were conducted in 2004-2006 at various locations in eastern Washington to evaluate: a) controlled release and conventional nitrogen fertilizer source, placement and application timing treatments for winter and spring wheat production; b) alternative nitrogen sources for dryland grass seed production; and c) legume green manure and other alternative nitrogen sources for organic dryland crop rotations. (a) There were few differences between controlled release and conventional forms of urea fertilizer on wheat. Grain yield and protein responses to total N supply (soil + fertilizer) suggest current unit nitrogen supply requirements of 2.7, 3.0 and 3.6 lb N/bushel for soft white, hard white/hard red winter, and hard red spring, respectively, are valid. Hard red winter wheat yield can be increased with spring topdress applications of nitrogen, and spring wheat grain protein can be increased with in-season applications of foliar nitrogen. Studies indicate yield and protein response to nitrogen are highly dependent on residual soil N and location, emphasizing the importance of yield-based nitrogen recommendations and knowledge of pre-fertilization soil nitrogen levels. (b) Grass seed yields in 2007 varied by location, N source and timing of application. Generally, yield differences among sources could be explained by NH3 volatilization potential measured the preceding fall. Results indicate potential for NH3 volatilization and grass seed yield reductions with urea-based N forms. However, proper management such as timing of application to coincide with a rainfall event or using a stabilized form of urea has the potential to reduce volatilization and promote more efficient urea-N use and higher grass seed yields. (c) Legume and biosolids-based fertility can improve yields of dryland wheat in organic and conventional dryland production systems. More intensive green manure management during the transition to certified organic production led to higher spring and winter wheat grain yields. Biosolids applications resulted in 5 to 20 bu/acre higher winter wheat grain yields than inorganic N fertilizer. Overall, results of this study suggest ways to improve nitrogen use efficiency by soil testing, appropriate rate and timing management, and use of alternative sources. Economic returns to conventional farmers could be improved by considering the price of nitrogen fertilizer and wheat when the fertilizer rate is being calculated in a given year and situation. PARTICIPANTS: John Rumph, Charles Golob, Katie Davidson, Emily Rude, Megan Alcot, Kristy Ott, Howard Nelson, Stephen Reinertsen, Jerry Zahl, Craig Walters. TARGET AUDIENCES: Dryland wheat and grass seed growers in the Pacific Northwest; organic grain growers in eastern Washington; fertilizer industry personnel in the Pacific Northwest; USDA-NRCS personnel.

Impacts
Nitrogen fertilizer prices have recently increased 100% due to increases in energy costs and the world supply-demand situation. Recent prices for wheat and other commodity crops have also risen. High fertilizer prices coupled with high and variable crop prices require a re-evaluation of nitrogen management strategies and economics for crop production. This research is providing valuable basic N response data for use in economic modeling to determine optimum fertilizer rates and risk associated with nitrogen management for dryland crops. Ultimately this work will improve nitrogen management decisions made by growers by basing these decisions on sound economic analysis and risk. Since this is the first year of this CRIS project there are no impacts to report yet.

Publications

• No publications reported this period

Progress 01/01/06 to 12/31/06

Outputs
Experiments were initiated in fall 2004-2006 at the Palouse Conservation Field Station in Pullman, WA to evaluate controlled release and conventional urea fertilizer source, placement and application timing treatments for hard red winter wheat production. Only results from the 2005 season are available at this time; the 2006 season failed and 2007 is pending. Results showed no yield difference between urea and controlled release urea applied at rates of 0 to 250 lb N/acre in a deep band placed 2 inches below the seed row. Placing 150 lb N/acre as controlled release urea with the seed resulted in a 510 lb/acre (8.5 bu/acre) lower yield compared to deep band placement at the same rate of N. Controlled release urea broadcast at 150 lb N/acre at seeding resulted in a 1,020 lb/acre (17 bu/acre) lower yield than urea broadcast at seeding. Broadcast applications of urea made at the rate of 150 lb N/acre at seeding, in late fall, or as 50:50 splits between seeding-late fall or late fall-early spring produced similar yields. Overall, few yield differences were observed between controlled release and conventional urea fertilizers, and among application timings of broadcast urea. Atypical weather patterns with a relatively warm and dry 2004-05 winter likely resulted in a low potential for nitrogen leaching or denitrification losses. Additional studies on spring and winter wheat N fertility were initiated at three locations spanning eastern Washington intermediate and high rainfall zones in 2005 and 2006. Market class (soft white, hard white and hard red) by N rate factorial designs were used at each location. In addition to single applications of N, split fall-spring and foliar application treatments were included for each study. Grain yield, grain protein and flag leaf N concentration at heading were measured. Preliminary results showed good relationships (R2 = 0.61 to 0.83) between flag leaf N and grain protein with hard white and hard red spring cultivars. Hard wheat also responded to foliar applications of 20 lb N/acre when grain protein concentration was low. Grain yield and protein responses to total N supply (soil + fertilizer) suggest current unit nitrogen supply requirements of 2.7, 3.0 and 3.6 lb N/bushel for soft white, hard white/hard red winter, and hard red spring, respectively, are valid. Economic analysis of yield and protein responses suggest it may not be economical to fertilize hard red wheats to achieve protein targets in recent years when N fertilizer prices are high and premium and discounts for protein low.

Impacts
Nitrogen fertilizer prices have recently increased nearly 50% due to increases in energy costs. Recent premiums and discounts for hard wheat grain protein, while near record highs in 2005, were minimal in 2006. High fertilizer prices coupled with variable premium-discount incentives for hard wheat protein require a re-evaluation of nitrogen management strategies and economics for hard wheat production. This research is providing valuable basic N response data for use in economic modeling to determine optimum fertilizer rates and risk associated with nitrogen management for hard wheat protein. The work has also shown that it may be possible to forecast grain protein from flag leaf nitrogen concentration, and that late season foliar applications of relatively small amounts of nitrogen may be a viable option for increasing grain protein when concentrations are below targets. Ultimately this work will improve nitrogen management decisions made by growers by basing these decisions on sound economic analysis and risk.

Publications

• No publications reported this period

Progress 01/01/05 to 12/31/05

Outputs
Experiments were initiated in Fall 2004 at the Palouse Conservation Field Station in Pullman, WA to evaluate controlled release and conventional urea fertilizer source, placement and application timing treatments for hard red winter wheat production. Only preliminary results from the 2005 grain harvest are available at this time. Results showed no yield difference between urea and controlled release urea applied at rates of 0 to 250 lb N/acre in a deep band placed 2 inches below the seed row. Placing 150 lb N/acre as controlled release urea with the seed resulted in a 510 lb/acre (8.5 bu/acre) lower yield compared to deep band placement at the same rate of N. Controlled release urea broadcast at 150 lb N/acre at seeding resulted in a 1020 lb/acre (17 bu/acre) lower yield than urea broadcast at seeding. Broadcast applications of urea made at the rate of 150 lb N/acre at seeding, in late fall, or as 50:50 splits between seeding-late fall or late fall-early spring produced similar yields. Overall, few yield differences were observed between controlled release and conventional urea fertilizers, and among application timings of broadcast urea. Atypical weather patterns with a relatively warm and dry 2004-05 winter likely resulted in a low potential for nitrogen leaching or denitrification losses. Under winter conditions more typical of this location greater differences may be observed between sources and among application timings. This study will be repeated again in 2005-06. Additional studies on spring and winter wheat N fertility were initiated at three locations spanning eastern Washington intermediate and high rainfall zones in 2005. Market class (soft white, hard white and hard red) by N rate factorial designs were used at each location. In addition to single applications of N, split fall-spring and foliar application treatments were included for each study. Grain yield, grain protein and flag leaf N concentration at heading will be collected. Preliminary results showed excellent relationships (R2 = 0.76 to 0.83) between flag leaf N and grain protein at two locations with hard white and hard red spring wheats. Hard wheats also responded to foliar applications of N when grain protein concentration was below 12% for hard white and 14% for hard red.

Impacts
Nitrogen fertilizer prices have recently increased nearly 50% due to increases in energy costs. Recent premiums and discounts for hard wheat grain protein are also near record highs. High fertilizer prices coupled with premium-discount incentives for hard wheat protein require a re-evaluation of nitrogen management strategies and economics for hard wheat production. This research is providing valuable basic nitrogen response data for use in economic modeling to determine optimum fertilizer rates and risk associated with nitrogen management for hard wheat protein. The work has also shown that it may be possible to forecast grain protein from flag leaf nitrogen concentration, and that late season foliar applications of relatively small amounts of nitrogen may be a viable option for increasing grain protein when concentrations are below targets. Ultimately this work will improve nitrogen management decisions made by growers by basing these decisions on sound economic analysis and risk.

Publications

• No publications reported this period

Progress 01/01/04 to 12/31/04

Outputs
The majority of eastern Washington farmland is in dryland cropping systems. Wheat is the primary crop grown in dryland areas, and involves a complex mixture of winter and spring varieties with up to six different market classes, direct-seeded and conventional tillage systems, and synthetic as well as organic nutrient inputs. The complexity of wheat production demands refined nutrient (primarily nitrogen) recommendations that account for differences in rotation, environment, soil, crop, and end-use quality goals. Multiple trials were initiated with this new project in 2004 to improve nitrogen management for eastern Washington wheat. The first study, located at the Palouse Conservation Field Station near Pullman, WA, involves five rates of two different nitrogen sources (conventional and controlled release urea) placed in a deep band directly beneath the seed row. Additional fall, spring and split fall-spring broadcast timing treatments at one intermediate nitrogen rate were also included in this randomized complete block design. A second but related study involving conventional urea applied in a deep band, controlled release urea applied in a deep band, and urea broadcast on the surface at the time of seeding were applied in continuous strips approximately 1,200 meters long spanning a typical Palouse hill from south-southwest facing to north facing slope. These continuous broadcast strips include six, 10-meter control segments in which no fertilizer was applied. Sampling will commence in 2005 with dry matter and nitrogen accumulation measurements made at select growth stages. Post-season soil sampling will also be conducted to construct a nitrogen balance and evaluate components of nitrogen use efficiency among treatments. A separate hard white spring wheat cultivar by nitrogen rate factorial trial was initiated in 2004. Hail damage limited the interpretation of these data. Yield and grain nitrogen concentration of both cultivars responded similarly across nitrogen rates. Results indicated that adequate nitrogen fertility for a target protein level of 12.5 percent was achieved with approximately 2.6 lb of nitrogen supply per bushel of grain produced. This is somewhat lower than the current recommended 3.0 lb of nitrogen supply per bushel of grain, but additional research with more sites and different environments is required to conclusively demonstrate this. Additional hard wheat fertility trials are planned when funding is secured. Lastly, an inorganic fertilizer by legume residue rate study was initiated in 2004 with the objective to determine if organic legume residue can wholly or partially substitute for inorganic fertilizer as a nitrogen source for hard red spring wheat. Three rates of legume (pea) residue were applied in the fall and three rates of inorganic nitrogen fertilizer will be applied in a factorial design in the spring before planting hard red wheat. Yield, grain protein and quality, and nitrogen uptake will be measured.

Impacts
None to report. First year of project.

Publications

• No publications reported this period