Source: NEW MEXICO STATE UNIVERSITY submitted to
INTERACTIONS OF VADOSE ZONE PROPERTIES IRRIGATED WITH VARIABLE QUALITY CONVENTIONAL AND UNCONVENTIONAL WATERS IN ARID AREAS
Sponsoring Institution
National Institute of Food and Agriculture
Project Status
NEW
Funding Source
Reporting Frequency
Annual
Accession No.
1006850
Grant No.
(N/A)
Project No.
NMShukla-15H
Proposal No.
(N/A)
Multistate No.
(N/A)
Program Code
(N/A)
Project Start Date
Jul 31, 2015
Project End Date
Sep 30, 2019
Grant Year
(N/A)
Project Director
Shukla, MA.
Recipient Organization
NEW MEXICO STATE UNIVERSITY
1620 STANDLEY DR ACADEMIC RESH A RM 110
LAS CRUCES,NM 88003-1239
Performing Department
Plant and Environmental Sciences
Non Technical Summary
Irrigation is one of the major uses of fresh water around the world. The United States Geological Surveyestimated that the U.S. drew 115,000 Mgal/d for irrigation alone with more withdrawals occurring in the arid western US. Domestic use is the next greatest draw of freshwater but only accounts for 12 percent of the total. Soil-salt accumulation is widely recognized as an environmental concern for WW application sites in semi-arid environmentsthat regulate plant community assembly. Therefore, understanding the interaction between the soil and crop to the use of saline water, and identifying proper soil and water management practices is critical to the long-term success of utilizing these water resources for agricultural production. There is an intricate and dynamic balance between the various components of the system that must be better understood to make the process more widely accepted.
Animal Health Component
0%
Research Effort Categories
Basic
15%
Applied
85%
Developmental
0%
Classification

Knowledge Area (KA)Subject of Investigation (SOI)Field of Science (FOS)Percent
11101102050100%
Knowledge Area
111 - Conservation and Efficient Use of Water;

Subject Of Investigation
0110 - Soil;

Field Of Science
2050 - Hydrology;
Goals / Objectives
The overall objective of this project is to quantify the influence of water and salinity related abiotic stresses on soil physical and chemical properties, crop physiology and sustainability, and suggest new irrigation strategies for irrigating various food and fodder crops under a water salinity gradient. Specific objectives are:Develop new irrigation strategies using conventional and unconventional watersQuantify influence of water and salinity stresses on physiology and sustainability of important crops of NMQuantify the transport behavior of constituents of unconventional waters and their influence on soil physical and chemical properties and pore-cloggingLow water availability is forcing use of saline water and this proposal will address the conseuences and possible solutions.
Project Methods
Objective 1: Develop new irrigation strategies using conventional and unconventional waters.Irrigation is vital for chile production in arid and semi-arid regions due to limited precipitation that puts increasing pressure on the fresh surface and ground water resources. Therefore, to sustain chile production in arid regions as well as to improve irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE), water conservation techniques such as, efficient irrigation scheduling and compensation or water stress management mechanisms such as partial root zone drying (PRD) should be implemented. According to our best knowledge there are scant data available on the effects of PRD drip irrigation practices on growth, physiology and yield of chile under greenhouse conditions. This research will investigate the hypothesis that chile will respond to PRD in similar way as other crops. Although PRD can effect plants on morphological, physiological, biochemical as well as at molecular level. In this study, only the effects of water stress on physiological and morphological levels of plants will be studied because these factors are directly related to crop yield.This study will conduct a complete water balance by measuring amounts of irrigation water applied, amounts of drainage, and the change in storage throughout the growing season. The only unknown term "evapotranspiration (ET)" will be directly measured from water balance equation. The soil water content will be measured indirectly and calibration equations will be developed for TDR (CS 616), Hydra probes SDI-12 and 5TM sensors using the gravimetric method. The study will also determine the crop coefficients for efficient irrigation scheduling of drip irrigated greenhouse chile under normal irrigation and PRD. Partial root drying (PRD) experiments will be conducted in greenhouses to evaluate water saving, productivity and quality of chile (NuMex Joe Parker; Capsicum annuum) under compensated and uncompensated (no water stress) irrigation treatments. Three drip irrigation treatments used will be (1) control where water will be applied at the surface using two drip emitters, (2) partial rootzone drying vertical (PRDv) where subsurface irrigation will be applied at 20 cm depth, and (3) partial rootzone drying compartment (PRDc) where roots will be divided into two compartments and irrigation will be applied to one of the compartments on an alternate day cycle for 15 days. The irrigation rates will be reduced in subsequent years and the effect of different levels of water stress on growth and yield of chile will be determined. Several plant physiological measurements including photosynthetic rates, transpiration rates, stomatal conductance, stem water potential, and osmotic potential will be made several times during the growing season.Objective 2: Quantify influence of water and salinity stresses on physiology and sustainability of important crops of NM Efficient utilization of limited water resources can be achieved by determining the salinity thresholds for crops at various stages and directly measuring crop specific ET data. For example, empirically derived Kc values for chile pepper are reported to max out from 0.8 to 1.2. The Kc values derived from measured ET for a drip irrigated greenhouse chile also has the maximum value of nearly 1.2 (Unpublished data; Sharma and Shukla, 2014). However, a range of 0.8 to 1.2 represents a big difference in Kc values and corresponds to a much larger water volume required for irrigation. It also means that efficient irrigation scheduling of chile is unlikely using these Kc values. There is an urgent need to conduct research for measuring ET under different rates of irrigation application under different water salinity levels.This study is designed to evaluate effects of water and salinity stresses on yield and quality of the specialty crops of New Mexico, especially chile. This study will determine the actual crop ET, crop coefficients and leaching fractions under various salinity levels, and determine a threshold salinity level for chile at different growth stages for sustaining production, At present, there is no information available on the actual crop ET, crop coefficients for irrigation using saline water, as well as on threshold salinity levels, knowledge of which is extremely important for efficient irrigation scheduling with low quality water to sustain production in arid areas. The experiments will be conducted using normal irrigation water, high salinity well water and concentrate coming out of a RO system.Objective 3: Quantify the transport behavior of constituents of unconventional waters and their influence on soil physical and chemical properties and pore-cloggingThe transport of solute through soil is a complex phenomenon and knowledge of transport behavior of solutes is important for designing the disposal strategy of a solution (or concentrate) (Shukla, 2014). Literature suggests that movement of concentrate through soil and associated concentrate leaching has not been investigated. In this study, solute transport experiments will be conducted in 10 cm diameter columns without plants, and in 30 cm diameter columns with a plant. A pulse of concentrate will be applied separately through two 10 cm long Plexiglas columns repacked with the soil from west Mesa. The concentrate will be displaced under unsaturated soil using tap water. Effluent will be collected at the bottom of the core and will be analyzed for concentration of different anions and cations and breakthrough curves will be obtained (Gonzalez and Shukla, 2014). These curves will be used to model the degree of nonequilibrium in the soil system and obtain solute transport parameters.Another experiment will be conducted through two 30 cm long Plexiglass columns repacked with the same soil and a given volume of concentrate will be applied on a bi-weekly basis. Columns will be weighed before and after the concentrate application to determine the water lost due to evaporation. The columns will be irrigated until effluent comes out of the bottom. Soil will be collected in layers and solute concentrations will be determined for each layer separately. The saturated paste extracts will be prepared for each depth, separately and electrical conductivity, and anion and cation concentrations will be determined. The results of this column experiment will be used to develop leaching depth versus time relationship. The intact subsamples from these column experiments will be sent to PNNL labs for X-ray tomography for visualization of pore-clogging. Smaller subsamples will also be scanned using Scanning Electron Microscopy for identifying salt deposition on particle surfaces and pores.

Progress 10/01/16 to 09/30/17

Outputs
Target Audience:Stakeholders, graduate and undergraduate students, Faculty and Scientific community Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? Nothing Reported How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Some results were shared with graduate and undergraduate students of ES 370, Soil Physics 477 and Advanced Soil Physics 652. Some results were shared with stakeholders during meeting at NMSU capus and at other places Presentations during International visits and Conferences Refereed Journal articles What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?Continue to work on these objectives

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Measureable objectives are: Develop new irrigation strategies using conventional and unconventional waters Quantify influence of water and salinity stresses on physiology and sustainability of important crops of NM Quantify the transport behavior of constituents of unconventional waters and their influence on soil physical and chemical properties and pore-clogging Objective 1: Develop new irrigation strategies using conventional and unconventional waters Low rainfall, high evaporation, low quality groundwater, and scarce surface water have created a need for alternate water sources for irrigation. Low quality water needs treated for example using reverse osmosis (RO). However, process produces highly saline concentrate. This study investigates irrigation strategies using RO concentrate as an irrigation source for glycophytes and halophytes. The objectives were to evaluate the evapotranspiration (ET), leaching fractions (LF), and total above-ground biomass produced under an irrigation water salinity gradient. Three irrigation treatments of 0.9 dS/m (control), 4 dS/m, 8.0 dS/m were applied for 90-days to some glycophytes and halophytes. Six halophytes species tested were Atriplex canescens, Hordeum vulgare, Lepidium alyssoides, Distichlis stricta, Panicum virgatum, and ×Triticosecale. Irrigation and deep percolation (DP) were measured to determine ET and LF. Control water irrigated plants had higher ET, lower LF and lower DP than saline water irrigated plants. Dry above ground biomass for A. canescens and L. alyssoides increased, P. virgatum decreased. All species tested in this study appear suitable for cultivation using RO concentrate in sand, but P. virgatum is less viable in clay. Concentrate reuse for growing salt-loving plants could aid in implementation of inland groundwater desalination in the southwestern U.S (Flores et al. 2016; Flores et al., 2017). The ion uptake for all six species was measured and was found to be low. This caused increases in soil salinity (Ozturk et al., 2017). Objective 2. Quantify influence of water and salinity stresses on physiology and sustainability of important crops of NM This study evaluated the effects of irrigation using saline water on the chile pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) cultivars AZ 1904, NuMex Joe E. Parker, NuMex Sandia Select, LB 25, and 3441. Salt tolerance of these cultivars was studied at various growth stages including germination, emergence, vegetative growth, flowering and fruiting stages in a greenhouse set up. Increasing irrigation water salinity increased mean germination and emergence time but did not affect the final germination percentage. Final percentage emergence was affected significantly after EC ≥3 dS/m. Increasing salinity decreased days to flowering, photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, relative fresh shoot and fruit weights, and water use efficiency. Results show that the selected chile pepper cultivars can be irrigated up to an irrigation water salinity level of ≤ 3 ds/m. environmentally sound reuse of RO concentrate will encourage desalination in water scarce areas and greenhouse chile cultivation (Baath et al., 2017). Objective 3. Quantify the transport behavior of constituents of unconventional waters and their influence on soil physical and chemical properties and pore-clogging Soil thermal properties are important to quantify the coupled flow of heat and moisture in the vadose zone. Thermal properties were determined for loamy sand (LS), sandy loam (SL) and sandy clay loam (SCL) soils. Thermal properties showed some variations due to water salinity and soil texture. Irrigation with lagoon treated water reduced the heat conductance with formation of salt layer between soil and may conserve soil moisture. Pore clogging will be evaluated in near future. Project Impact The availability of surface water for irrigation is not sufficient for sustaining agriculture in the southern New Mexico. Increasingly saline groundwater is used for irrigation, which can have severe consequences on the soil quality and sustainability of agriculture. My research group works on the use of brackish water and RO concentrate for growing chile peppers and halophytes. This has generated a lot of interest in the state and has been widely published by various Newspapers. Our strategy towards developing new irrigation scheduling protocols for safe and low cost disposal of RO concentrate can be a key for sustaining agriculture in water starved southern New Mexico as well as other similar arid areas.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: 1. *Flores A., M.K. Shukla, B. Schutte, G. Picchioni, and D. Daniel. 2017. Physiologic response of six plant species grown in two contrasting soils and irrigated with brackish groundwater and RO concentrate. Arid land Res. And Manag. Journal. (In Press). 2. *Baath G. S., M. K. Shukla, P. W. Bosland, R. L. Steiner, and S. J. Walker. 2017. Irrigation Water Salinity Influences at Various Growth Stages of Capsicum annuum. Ag Water Management. 179: 246-253. 3. *Sharma P., M.K. Shukla, P. Bosland and R. Steiner. 2017. Soil moisture sensor calibration, actual evapotranspiration and crop coefficients for deficit irrigated greenhouse chile. Ag Wat Manag. 179: 81-91. 4. *Gonzalez, A., M.K. Shukla, J. Ashigh, and R. Purkins. 2017. Effect of application rate and irrigation on the movement and dissipation of indaziflam. J. Environmental Science. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2016.09.002. 52:910-915. 5. *Gonzalez A., M.K. Shukla, D. Dubois, J. Margez, J. Hernandez and E Olivas. 2017. Microbial and size characterization of airborne particulate matter collected on sticky tapes along US-Mexico border. J. Environmental Science. DOI:10.1016/j.jes.2015.10.037. 53: 207-216. 6. *Pinon-Villarreal, A., A. Bawazir, M.K. Shukla, A. Samani, and J.P. King. 2017. Modeling capillary rise in Clinoptilolite zeolite and riparian soils to sustain vegetation in water scarce areas. J. Irrigation and Drainage ASCE. 143 (11): DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0001235.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Accepted Year Published: 2017 Citation: " Shukla M.K. 2017. Irrigation water management for water scarce New Mexico. Volcani Center, Israel, June 14. " Shukla M.K. 2016. Irrigation water management for semi-arid areas: opportunities for augmenting water resources and improving water use efficiency. College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Nov. 8. " Fernandez J., M.K. and B. Stringam. 2017. Soil texture, nitrogen and irrigation water quality influence on Pecan kernel. SSSA Annual Meeting, Tampa, FL, Oct. 22-25.


Progress 10/01/15 to 09/30/16

Outputs
Target Audience:Faculty and Researchers from Universities, USDA and National Lab Graduate and Undergraduate students Stakeholders and growers Changes/Problems:No changes. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?Threestduents graduated with a MS degree. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Through refereed Journal article publications,Presentations to various audiances,Shared data withgraduate and undergraduate students of soil477, soil652, Discussion with stakeholders and growers What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?Continue to work on the three objectives and refine results. Start the work on Objective 3.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Objective 1: Develop new irrigation strategies using conventional and unconventional waters In the arid southwestern United States, water is scarce. Low rainfall, high evaporation, low quality groundwater, and dwindling amounts of surface water have created a need for alternate water sources. Reverse osmosis (RO) is used to desalinate groundwater but results in highly saline concentrate. This study investigates irrigation strategies using RO concentrate as an irrigation source for glycophytes and halophytes. The objectives were to evaluate the evapotranspiration (ET), leaching fractions (LF), and total above-ground biomass produced under an irrigation water salinity gradient. Three irrigation treatments of 0.9 dS/m (control), 4.1 dS/m, 8.0 dS/m were applied for 90-days. In this greenhouse study, six salt-tolerant plant species, Atriplex canescens, Hordeum vulgare, Lepidium alyssoides, Distichlis stricta, Panicum virgatum, and ×Triticosecale, were planted in contrasting soils. Irrigation and deep percolation (DP) were measured to determine ET and LF. Control water irrigated plants had higher ET, lower LF and lower DP than saline water irrigated plants. Dry above ground biomass for A. canescens and L. alyssoides increased, P. virgatum decreased, and no trends were observed for others with increasing irrigation water salinity. All species tested in this study appear suitable for cultivation using RO concentrate in sand, but P. virgatum is less viable in clay. Concentrate reuse for growing salt-loving plants could aid in implementation of inland groundwater desalination in the southwestern U.S (Flores et al. 2016). Objective 2. Quantify influence of water and salinity stresses on physiology and sustainability of important crops of NM Availability of fresh surface water for irrigation is declining in southern New Mexico, and saline groundwater is increasingly used for irrigation. This study evaluates the effects of irrigation using saline water on the chile pepper plants. The chile pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) cultivars selected include, AZ 1904, NuMex Joe E. Parker, NuMex Sandia Select, LB 25, and 3441. Salt tolerance of these five cultivars was studied at various growth stages including germination, emergence, vegetative growth, flowering and fruiting stages in a greenhouse set up. The five saline treatments included for germination were tap water of EC 0.6 (control), well water of EC 3 and 6, and RO concentrate of EC 8 and 10 dS/m. During plant emergence and growth, natural water ECs for irrigation were 0.6 (control), 3, 5 and 8 dS/m. Increasing irrigation water salinity increased mean germination time but did not affect the final germination percentage. Increasing irrigation water salinity increased mean emergence time but the final percentage emergence was affected significantly only after EC ≥3 dS/m. Plant growth was significantly affected after several weeks of continuous exposure to saline water application (EC≥ 3 dS/m). Increasing salinity decreased days to flowering, photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, relative fresh shoot and fruit weights, and water use efficiency. Results show that the selected chile pepper cultivars can be irrigated up to an irrigation water salinity level of ≤ 3 ds/m. Among all the cultivars, 3441 was found to be the most tolerant to salinity. Environmentally sound reuse of RO concentrate will encourage desalination in water scarce areas and greenhouse chile cultivation (Baath et al., 2017).

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: 1. *Flores A., M.K. Shukla, B. Schutte, G. Picchioni, and D. Daniel. 2017. Physiologic response of six plant species grown in two contrasting soils and irrigated with brackish groundwater and RO concentrate. Arid land Res. And Manag. Journal. (In Press). 2. *Baath G. S., M. K. Shukla, P. W. Bosland, R. L. Steiner, and S. J. Walker. 2017. Irrigation Water Salinity Influences at Various Growth Stages of Capsicum annuum. Ag Water Management. 179: 246-253. 3. *Sharma P., M.K. Shukla, P. Bosland and R. Steiner. 2017. Soil moisture sensor calibration, actual evapotranspiration and crop coefficients for deficit irrigated greenhouse chile. Ag Wat Manag. 179: 81-91. 4. *Gonzalez, A., M.K. Shukla, J. Ashigh, and R. Purkins. 2016. Effect of application rate and irrigation on the movement and dissipation of indaziflam. J. Environmental Science. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2016.09.002 (In Press) 5. *Flores A., M.K. Shukla, D. Daniel, A. Ulery, B. Schutte, G. Pichionni and S. Fernald. 2016. Evapotranspiration Changes with Irrigation Using Saline Groundwater and RO Concentrate. J. Arid Environments. 131:35-45. 6. Schutte B. J., N. Klypina and M. K. Shukla. 2016. Influence of Irrigation Timing on Disturbance-Induced Reductions in Soil Seedbank Density. Weed Science. 64:613-623. 7. Shukla M.K. 2016. Soil and Water Chemistry: An Integrative Approach, Michael E. Essington, CRC Press (Taylor and Francis Group), second edition, 2015. Book Review Vadoze Zone Journal. (15:3 Published). 8. P. Sharma, M. K. Shukla, B. Stringam and D. VanLeeuwen. 2016. Alternate Approaches to Determine Spatial Dependence of Some Soil Properties. GSTF Journal on Agricultural Engineering. (in press) 9. *Gonzalez A., M.K. Shukla, D. Dubois, J. Margez, J. Hernandez and E Olivas. 2016. Microbial and size characterization of airborne particulate matter collected on sticky tapes along US-Mexico border. J. Environmental Science. DOI:10.1016/j.jes.2015.10.037.


Progress 07/31/15 to 09/30/15

Outputs
Target Audience:Faculty, scientists, graduate and undergraduate students, postdocs, and stakeholders. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? Nothing Reported How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Refereed Journal Articles, Presentations, Talking to stakeholders, lecture notes What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?continue to work on these projects, collect data, analyze and publish papers

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Objective 1: Develop new irrigation strategies using conventional and unconventional waters Water saving, productivity, and quality of the chile pepper were evaluated under three irrigation treatments. Three drip irrigation treatments used were (1) control; where water was applied at the surface using two drip emitters, (2) partial rootzone drying vertically (PRDv); where subsurface irrigation was applied at 20 cm depth from soil surface, and (3) partial rootzone drying compartment (PRDc); where roots were divided into two compartments and irrigation was applied to one of the compartments on every alternate day cycle for 15 days. Continuous measurements ofsoil water content were carried out during the growing seasons of 2013 and 2014, respectively.During both growing seasons, the stomatal conductance and photosynthetic rates were similar among all treatments including the control. In both PRD treatments, a higher rooting depth and root length density (RLD) than the control likely compensated for the water stress in dry soil zones by taking up more water from the water available parts of the root-soil system. In PRDc and PRDv treatments, 30% less water was applied than control without significant changes to plant stress expressed by stem water potential, plant height, capsaicinoid concentration and yield. The increased irrigation water use efficiency demonstrated water saving potential of both PRD techniques for chile pepper production in water limited arid environments (Sharma et al., 2015). Objective 2. Quantify influence of water and salinity stresses on physiology and sustainability of important crops of NM Chile-pepper is an important cash crop of Southwestern United States, with nearly 8,000 to 10,000 acres harvested annually in New Mexico alone. It has been classified as moderately sensitive to salinity with a threshold level of 1.5 dS/m, above which yield begins to decline. To our knowledge, most of the saline studies conducted so far on peepers used NaCl either as sole or as dominant salinizing agent. Therefore, research on the use of natural brackish groundwater which along with Na+ and Cl- ions, also contains a considerable amount of Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, SO42-, HCO3- and many others, for irrigation is needed for sustaining chile-pepper production in arid southwest USA. Objectives of this study were to assess: 1) the effect of saline groundwater irrigation at various growth stages of Chile-peppers; and 2) the relative salt tolerance of five Chile-peppers. The experiments are conducted to determine the effect of saline water irrigation on germination, emergence, and growth stages of chile peppers. The experimental work and data analysis is in progress.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: ? *Deb, S., Sharma, P., Shukla, M. K., Simunek, J. (2015). Numerical Evaluation of Nitrate Distributions in the Onion Root Zone under Conventional Furrow Fertigation. To appear in Journal of Hydrologic Engineering ASCE. Accepted: 2015, ? *Gonzalez, A., Shukla, M. K., Dubois, D. W., Margez, J., Hernandez, J., Olivas, E. (2015). Microbial and size characterization of airborne particulate matter collected on sticky tapes along US-Mexico border. J. Environmental Science. Accepted: 2015, ? *Qi, Y., Yang, F., Shukla, M. K., Chang, Q., Chu, W. (2015). Desert soil properties changes after 30 years vegetation restoration in northern Shaanxi province. Arid land Research and Management, 29(4), 454-472. ? *Gonzalez, A., Ashigh, J., Shukla, M. K., Perkins, R. (2015). Mobility of indaziflam influenced by soil properties in a semi-arid area. Plos One. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0126100, ? *Sharma, H., Shukla, M. K., Bosland, P., Steiner, R. L. (2015). Physiological responses of greenhouse-grown drip irrigated Chile Pepper under partial root zone drying. Hort. Science, 50(8), 1224-1229. ? *Flores, A. M., Schutte, B. J., Shukla, M. K., Picchioni, G., Ulery, A. (2015). Time-integrated measurements of seed germination for salt tolerant plant species. Seed Sci. & Technol., 43, 1-7. ? *Gonzalez, A., Shukla, M. K., Stringam, B., Parsheh, M. (2015). Evaluation of Soil Compaction and Sealant Application for Compacted Earthen Liners. J. Agricultural Engineering, 2(1), 19-29., (INVITED) " *Hernandez, J., Margez, J., Shukla, M. K. (2015). Capture and Quantification in Natural and Anthropogenic sources. Journal of Environmental & Analytical Toxicology. (INVITED)
  • Type: Book Chapters Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Shukla, M. K. (2015). Sustainability of organic farms under different farming durations in semi-arid southern New Mexico. Agricultura Organica en Mexico (pp. 411-428)
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: " Shukla, M. K. (2015). Water resource management for semi-arid areas: status, problems and opportunities. 27th International Agronomy Week. Sept. Durango, Mexico. " Shukla, M. K. (2015). A new model for reuse of unconventional waters for agriculture in semi-arid areas. Minneapolis, MN: Soil Science Society America Annual Meeting. " Shukla, M. K., Flores, A. (2015). Desalination Concentrate Management for Sustainable Agriculture: A Preliminary Study on Transport behavior and Plant Viability at BGNDRF, BOR DOI. " Baath, G., Shukla, M. K. (2015). Salinity induced alterations on chile-peppers at various growth stages. Minneapolis, MN. " Shukla, M. K. (2015). Water balance in the rootzone of soil under contrasting texture. International Conference on organic Farming. International Organic Conference.