Source: VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE submitted to
ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF POULTRY (WAS NC-168)
Sponsoring Institution
National Institute of Food and Agriculture
Project Status
NEW
Funding Source
HATCH
Reporting Frequency
Annual
Accession No.
1000843
Grant No.
(N/A)
Project No.
VA.136277
Proposal No.
(N/A)
Multistate No.
NC-1170
Program Code
(N/A)
Project Start Date
Oct 1, 2013
Project End Date
Sep 30, 2018
Grant Year
(N/A)
Project Director
Wong, E.
Recipient Organization
VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
(N/A)
BLACKSBURG,VA 24061
Performing Department
Animal Poultry Sciences
Non Technical Summary
Coccidiosis is a major disease of poultry caused by the intestinal protozoa Eimeria. Infections by Eimeria parasites produce lesions and cause destruction of intestinal epithelia, resulting in reduced feed efficiency and body weight gain and subsequent severe economic losses for the poultry industry. The objective of this research is to determine the changes in intestinal gene expression following Eimeria infection. The goal is to decipher the molecualr mechanism that controls infection and reveal critical control points in order to develop novel strategies to control the infection.
Animal Health Component
50%
Research Effort Categories
Basic
90%
Applied
10%
Developmental
(N/A)
Classification

Knowledge Area (KA)Subject of Investigation (SOI)Field of Science (FOS)Percent
3023299104050%
3113299104050%
Knowledge Area
311 - Animal Diseases; 302 - Nutrient Utilization in Animals;

Subject Of Investigation
3299 - Poultry, general/other;

Field Of Science
1040 - Molecular biology;
Goals / Objectives
Elucidate genetic mechanisms that underlie economic traits and develop new methods to apply that knowledge to poultry breeding practices.
Project Methods
Coccidiosis is an intestinal disease caused by the pathogen Eimeria. The objective of this research is to determine the changes in gene expression in the intestine following Eimeria infection in order to determine the molecular mechanism that regulates the infection. One of the areas of focus is the expression of nutrient (amino acids and sugars) transporter genes. Chickens will be infected with Eimeria and then gene expression in intestinal tissue will be assayed by real time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Both graduate and undergraduate students will be involved in this research and will receive laboratory training. The results of this work will be published as theses/dissertations and in peer reviewed journals and will be presented at scientific conferences.

Progress 10/01/16 to 09/30/17

Outputs
Target Audience:Faculty and students with an interest in avian and poultry science at Universities and Colleges as well as Scientists and Representatives in the Poultry Industries. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?Training was provided for 3 undergraduate and 5 graduate students during the reporting period. Students presented their research results in oral and poster sessions at local, national and international conferences. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Publications in scientific journals and presentations at local, national and international conferences. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?Publish papers and present results at conferences on the effect of environmental factors such as egg incubation temperature and delayed access to feed on the number and distribution of stem cells in the intestine. This will provide insight into how environmental factors affect the population of stem cells and absorptive cells, which ultimately regulate nutrient uptake and growth.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Localization of absorptive and stem cells in the small intestine of chickens The uptake of nutrients is mediated by transporters located at the brush border membrane of enterocytes that line the intestinal villi. These enterocytes along with other differentiated cells in the villi arise from a population of stem cells. We have used in situ hybridization to identify enterocytes that express the peptide transporter PepT1 and stem cells that express Leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein coupled receptor 5 (Lgr5) and Olfactomedin 4 (Olfm4). Stem cells expressing Olfm4 and Lgr5 mRNA were localized to the intestinal crypts. At e19, when the intestinal crypts were still rudimentary, cells staining for Olfm4 mRNA were already present. Enterocytes lining the intestinal villi expressed PepT1 mRNA. At day of hatch (doh), there was a population of cells located between the intestinal crypt cells and mature enterocytes that expressed neither PepT1 nor Olfm4 mRNA. These cells are likely transit amplifying (TA) cells, which serve as intermediate progenitor cells. Expression of host defense peptides in the intestine of turkeys The host defense peptides (HDP) play an important role in innate immunity. In aves, the HDP consist of avian beta defensins (AvBD), cathelicidins (CATH), and liver expressed antimicrobial peptide 2 (LEAP2). The mRNA expression profiles of six AvBD, two CATH and LEAP2 have been determined in the intestine of turkeys from doh until day 28 post-hatch. AvBD1, AvBD8 and AvBD13 mRNA increased from doh to day 28 in the duodenum, while AvBD10 decreased from doh to day 7 in the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. LEAP2 mRNA increased from doh to day 7 post-hatch in the duodenum and jejunum. Expression of host defense peptides in the intestine of chickens challenged with Eimeria The mRNA expression profiles for AvBD and LEAP2 in chickens challenged with different species of Eimeria (E. acervulina, E. maxima, and E. tenella) have been investigated. There was downregulation of LEAP2 mRNA in the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum of E. maxima challenged chickens; however, changes in AvBD mRNA expression were not consistent between two E. maxima challenges. Using in situ hybridization, LEAP2 mRNA was found to be expressed in intestinal enterocytes suggesting that LEAP2 but not AvBD plays an important role in modulating an Eimeria infection.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Su, S., Dwyer, D.M., Miska, K.B. Fetterer, R.H. Jenkins, M.C., and Wong, E.A. 2017. Expression of hot defense peptides in the intestine of Eimeria-challenged chickens. Poult Sci. 96:2421-2427.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Hamad, S., Kim, S., El Kadi, S.W., Wong, E.A., and Dalloul, R.A. 2017. Comparative expression of host defense peptides in turkey poults. Poultry Sci. 96:2083-2090.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Zhang, H, and Wong EA. 2017. Spatial transcriptional profile of PepT1 mRNA in the yolk sac and small intestine in broilers. Poult Sci. 96:2871-2876.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Zhang, H and Wong, E.A. 2017. Localization of cells expressing PepT1 mRNA by in situ hybridization in the yolk sac and small intestine in broiler chickens. Annual Meeting of Poultry Science Association, Orlando, FL. July 16-20.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Wong, EA. and Zhang, H. Expression of nutrient transporters and host defense peptides in the intestine and yolk sac of chickens. Poultry Workshop, Plant and Animal Genome XXV, Jan 14-15, 2017, San Diego CA
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Zhang, H and Wong, E.A. 2017. Identification and localization of stem cells expressing Olfm4 and Lgr5 mRNA in the yolk sac and small intestine. Annual Meeting of Poultry Science Association, Orlando, FL. July 16-20.


Progress 10/01/15 to 09/30/16

Outputs
Target Audience:Faculty and students with an interest in avian and poultry science at Universities and Colleges as well as Scientists and Representatives in the Poultry Industries. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?Training was provided for 3 undergraduate and 5 graduate students during the reporting period. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Publications in scientific journals and presentations at international and national scientific conferences. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?The effect of environmental factors such as egg incubation temperature and disease on the number and distribution of stem cells in the yolk sac and intestine will be investigated. This will provide insight into how environmental factors and disease states affect stem cells and absorptive cells, which ultimately regulates nutrient uptake and growth.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? The yolk sac and small intestine are two important organs responsible for the digestion and absorption of nutrients during the embryonic and post-hatch periods, respectively. The peptide transporter PepT1 is expressed in both the yolk sac and small intestine and plays an important role in the transport of amino acids as short peptides and thus can serve as a marker for absorptive cells. The objective of this study was to profile the spatial transcriptional patterns of PepT1 mRNA in the yolk sac and small intestine from embryonic and post-hatch broilers using in situ hybridization. The distribution of PepT1 mRNA was investigated at embryonic (e) days 11, 13, 15, 17, 19 and day of hatch (DOH) in the yolk sac and at e19, DOH, D1, D4 and D7 in the small intestine. PepT1 mRNA was expressed in the endodermal cells of the yolk sac. Expression of PepT1 mRNA was barely detectable at e11, increased from e11 to e13, e15 and e17, and then decreased from e17 to DOH. In the small intestine, PepT1 mRNA was expressed in the enterocytes that line the villi. There was a rapid increase in the number of cells expressing PepT1 mRNA from e19 to DOH, with the number of PepT1 expressing cells relatively constant from D1 to D7. These results identify the absorptive cells that express PepT1 mRNA in the yolk sac and small intestine. The absorptive cells along with secretory cells, line the intestinal villi and arise from a stem cell population located in the intestinal crypts. The objective of this study was to identify stem cells expressing the stem cell markers Lgr5 (Leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein coupled receptor 5) and Olfm4 (Olfactomedin 4) in both the yolk sac and intestinal crypts. Using in situ hybridization, we have identified cells in the intestinal crypt of chickens that express both Lgr5 and Olfm4 mRNA, which presumably represent a population of stem cells. In the yolk sac, Lgr5 expressing cells, but not Olfm4 expressing cells were detected around the blood vessels, which are presumably a population of stem cells. Thus, we have identified stem cells in the intestine that express Lgr5 and Olfm4 mRNA and stem cells in the yolk sac that express only Lgr5 mRNA.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Weintraut M, Kim S, Dalloul R, Wong EA. 2016. Expression of small intestinal nutrient transporters in embryonic and posthatch turkeys. Poult. Sci. 95: 90-98. http://dx.doi.org/10.3382/ps/pev310.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Awaiting Publication Year Published: 2016 Citation: Zhang, S., Saremi, B., Gilbert, E.R., and Wong, E.A. 2016. Physiological and biochemical aspects of methionine isomers and their analogue in broilers. Poultry Science (in press) http://dx.doi.org/10.3382/ps/pew253.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Accepted Year Published: 2016 Citation: Su, S., Dwyer, D.M., Miska, K.B. Fetterer, R.H. Jenkins, M.C., and Wong, E.A. Expression of avian beta-defensins in the intestine of Eimeria-challenged chickens. Poult Sci. (in press) http://dx.doi.org/10.3382/ps/pew468.
  • Type: Theses/Dissertations Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Hamad, S. 2016. Developmental gene expression of host defense peptides in immune organs and the small intestine of turkey poults (Meleagris gallopavo). MS Thesis, Virginia Tech, September.
  • Type: Theses/Dissertations Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Zhang, S. 2016. Physiological and biochemical aspects of methionine isomers and precursors in broilers. PhD Dissertation, Virginia Tech, June.
  • Type: Theses/Dissertations Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Su, S. 2016. Cellular events during coccidial infection in chickens. PhD Dissertation, Virginia Tech, August.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Wong, EA., Weintraut, ML., Kim S. and Dalloul, RA. 2016. Intestinal nutrient transporter expression in embryonic and posthatch turkeys. Poultry Workshop, Plant and Animal Genome XXIV, Jan 9-10, San Diego CA.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Su, S., Dwyer, D., Miska, K., Fetterer, RH, Jenkins, MC, and Wong EA. 2016. Expression of antimicrobial peptides in the intestine of Eimeria-challenged chickens. International Production and Processing Expo, Atlanta, January (poster).
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Zhang, S. Saremi, B., Gilbert E.R., and Wong, E.A. 2016. Tissue distribution of oxidases and transaminases in broiler chickens fed methionine isomers or precursors. International Production and Processing Expo, Atlanta, January,(poster).
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Hamad, S., Kim, S., Wong, E.A. and Dalloul, R.A. 2016. Comparative expression of avian beta defensins in turkey poults. International Production and Processing Expo, Atlanta, January(poster).
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Garcia, JS, Byrd, JA and Wong EA 2016. Effects of Salmonella infection on gene expression of nutrient transporters and an antimicrobial peptide in young broiler chicks. Annual meeting of Poultry Science Association, New Orleans (oral presentation).
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Zhang, S., Saremi, B., Gilbert, ER, and Wong EA. 2016. Effect of different dietary methionine supplementation sources on oxidative status in broiler chickens. Annual meeting of Poultry Science Association, New Orleans (oral presentation).
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Su, S., Miska, KB, Jenkins, MC, Fetterer, RH, Wong, EA. 2016. Expression of apoptosis and autophagy related genes in Eimeria challenged broilers Annual meeting of Poultry Science Association, New Orleans (poster).
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Omara, I.I., Mou, CT, Persia, ME and Wong, EA. 2016. Effects of available phosphorus source and concentration on sodium phosphate type IIb co-transporter, vitamin D-1?-hydroxylase, and vitamin D-24-hydroxylase mRNA gene expression in broiler chicks. Annual meeting of Poultry Science Association, New Orleans (poster).


Progress 10/01/14 to 09/30/15

Outputs
Target Audience:Faculty and students in the Animal Sciences and Representatives of the Poultry Industry. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?Both undergraduate and graduate students received training in laboratory procedures and had the opportunity to present their results at scientific conferences. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Results have been disseminated by publication in peer-reviewed publications and presentations at scientific conferences. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?Probiotics are a live microbial feed supplement that enhance growth and improve feed efficiency, which can counteract some of the symptoms of Eimeria infection. We hypothesize that there will be changes to nutrient transporter gene expression following probiotics treatment in Eimeria infected chickens.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Growth of poultry post-hatch is dependent upon the uptake of nutrients from ingested feed. Nutrients such as amino acids, peptides and sugars are taken up by transporter proteins located in the brush border membrane of intestinal epithelial cells, which face the intestinal lumen. The objective of this project was to profile the mRNA expression profiles of a number of nutrient transporters during the post-hatch period in chickens and turkeys. The expression of a number of amino acid, peptide, and sugar transporters was found to increase from day of hatch until 2-4 weeks post-hatch in both chickens and turkeys, which reflects the maturation of the intestine and the increasing need for nutrients to support rapid growth. One interesting difference between chickens and turkeys was the level of mRNA expression of the anionic amino acid transporter EAAT3, which transports glutamate, the major energy source for intestinal epithelial cells. EAAT3 expression was found to be 6-fold greater in the ileum of turkeys than chickens. In turkeys, a difference in expression level between male and female turkeys was observed. Of the 11 digestive enzymes and amino acid, peptide and sugar transporters examined, there was greater expression of nine genes in female turkeys than male turkeys. Avian coccidiosis, which is caused by the intestinal protozoa Eimeria, is characterized by reduced feed efficiency and body weight gain. The sites of lesions in the intestine vary for different Eimeria species, for example E. acervulina, E. maxima and E. tenella primarily affect the duodenum, jejunum, and ceca, respectively. In addition, E. praecox affects the duodenum but typically only produces micro lesions. The observed growth depression may be due to the intestinal lesions and the resultant changes in expression of digestive enzymes and nutrient transporters. The objective of this project was to examine differential expression of digestive enzymes, nutrient transporters and a host defense protein in the small intestine and ceca of broilers challenged with different Eimeria species. Following infection with the four different Eimeria species, there was downregulation of a common set of nutrient transporters and an antimicrobial peptide, indicating a general cellular response to Eimeria infection. Downregulation of nutrient transporters would explain the observed decrease in growth rate following Eimeria infection. The common genes that are downregulated include the anionic amino acid transporter EAAT3, the zinc transporter ZnT1 and the host defense peptide LEAP2. Although the four Eimeria species differ in their clinical symptoms, the cellular mechanism for response Eimeria infection is conserved.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Yin, H., Sumners, L.H., Dalloul, R.A. Miska, K.B. Fetterer, R.H. Jenkins, M.C. Zhu, Q. and Wong, E.A. 2015. Expression of an antimicrobial peptide, digestive enzymes and nutrient transporters in the intestine of E. praecox-infected chickens. Poult. Sci. 94:1521-1526.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Miska, K.B., Fetterer, R.H. and Wong, E.A. 2015. The mRNA expression of amino acid transporters, aminopeptidase, and the di- and tri-peptide transporter PepT1 in the intestine and liver of post-hatch broiler chicks. Poult. Sci. 94:1323-1332.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Su, S., Miska, K.B., Fetterer, R.H., Jenkins, M.C., and Wong, E.A. 2015. Expression of digestive enzymes and nutrient transporters in Eimeria-challenged broilers. Exp. Parasitol. 150:13-21.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Accepted Year Published: 2015 Citation: Zhang, S., Wong, E.A., and Gilbert, E.R. 2015. Bioavailability of different dietary supplemental methionine sources in animals. Frontiers Biosci. 7:491-500
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Weintraut, M., Kim, S., Dalloul, R., and Wong, E.A. 2015. Expression of small intestinal nutrient transporters in embryonic and posthatch turkeys. Poult. Sci. (in press)
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Wong, E.A., Yadgary, L. and Uni, Z. Transcriptome profiling of the chicken yolk sac during late embryogenesis. Poultry Workshop, Plant and Animal Genome XXIII, San Diego, CA, Jan 2015.
  • Type: Theses/Dissertations Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Weintraut, M.L. 2015. Small intestinal transporters in two species of Galliformes: Male and female turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) and chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus). Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA.


Progress 10/01/13 to 09/30/14

Outputs
Target Audience: Faculty and students in the animal sciences; representatives in the poultry industry. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? Both undergraduate and graduate students received training inlaboratory procedures and had the opportunity to present their results at weekly lab meetings. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? Results have been published in peer reviewed journal articles. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Eimeria praecox is another Eimeria species that infects poultry, but it does not cause visible intestinal lesions. The overall objective is to identify a common mechanism that governs infection by all Eimeria species. The role that the antimicrobial peptide LEAP2 and nutrient transporters plays in modulating an Eimeria infection will be investigated at the molecular level. To complement the transcritome analysis of the yolk sac, differentiated cells in the yolk sac will be identified by immunohistochemical methods.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? IMPACTS We have developed a model for the cellular events that occur during an Eimeria infection. The model proposes that upon invasion of the intestinal epithelial cells, Eimeria downregulates expression of the host defense protein LEAP2. In response, the cell downregulates expression of amino acid transporters, which would result in a decrease in the intracellular pools of key nutrients. We hypothesize that this would lead to inhibition of Eimeria replication and/or intestinal cell death, which would cause an attenuation of the infection. Downregulation of the nutrient transporters would also explain the observed decrease in growth rate following Eimeria infection. A typical broiler chicken goes to market in 42 days and spends 1/3 of its life (21 days) during incubation. The chick is dependent upon the yolk for its nutrients which are transported to the embryo via the yolk sac. Thus, the uptake of nutrients from the yolk would have a profound effect on growth and development of the chick embryo. Our transcriptome profile of the yolk sac genes during late incubation reveals key cellular pathways that are active during incubation. These results may reveal insight into important cellular events that are important for optimal chick growth and development. ACCOMPLISHMENTS A typical broiler chicken that goes to market in 42 days, spends 1/3 of its life (21 days) during incubation of the egg. Thus events that occur during incubation affect growth and development of the embryo. The embryonic chick derives all of its nutrients from the yolk, which are transported through the yolk sac (YS) surrounding the yolk. The YS is an extra-embryonic tissue, which digests and transports nutrients during incubation of the avian embryo. Understanding the function and development of the YS may lead to enhanced nutrient uptake and optimized embryo development. The objective of this project was to perform a transcriptome analysis of the YS during late embryonic development on embryonic (e) days 13, 15, 17, 19, and 21. Functional annotation as well as histological analysis revealed that two main cell types of the YS were analyzed: epithelial cells and erythropoietic cells. There was expression of genes involved in lipid transport and metabolism, plasma carrier proteins, hemoglobin synthesis and nutrient transporters. These results demonstrate that during the final week of chick embryonic development, the YS plays different roles to support or replace the functions of several organs that have not yet reached their full functional capacity. The YS is not just a membrane but a multifunctional organ that acts as the intestine in digestion and transport of nutrients, the liver in production of plasma carrier proteins and the bone marrow in the synthesis of blood cells. Avian coccidiosis, which is caused by the intestinal protozoa Eimeria, is characterized by reduced feed efficiency and body weight gain. The sites of lesions in the intestine vary for different Eimeria species, for example E. acervulina, E. maxima and E. tenella primarily affect the duodenum, jejunum, and ceca, respectively. The observed growth depression may be due to the intestinal lesions and the resultant changes in expression of digestive enzymes and nutrient transporters. The objective of this project was to examine differential expression of digestive enzymes, nutrient transporters and a host defense protein in the small intestine and ceca of broilers challenged with different Eimeria species. Following infection with the different Eimeria species, there was downregulation of a common set of nutrient transporters and an antimicrobial peptide, indicating a general cellular response to Eimeria infection. These changes in gene expression would lead to a decrease in not only a host defense gene (LEAP2) that would promote Eimeria replication, but also a decrease in the uptake of amino acids, which would explain the observed decrease in growth rate following Eimeria infection.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Yadgary, L., Wong, E.A., and Uni, Z. 2014. Temporal transcriptome analysis of the chicken embryo yolk sac. BMC Genomics 15:690 doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-690.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Fetterer, R.H., Miska, K.B., Jenkins, M.C., and Wong, E.A. 2014. Expression of nutrient transporters in duodenum, jejunum and ileum of Eimeria maxima-infected broiler chickens. Parasitology Res. 113:3891-3894.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Yin, H., Zhang, S., Gilbert, E.R., Siegel, P.B., Zhu, Q., and Wong, E.A. 2014 Expression profiles of muscle genes in postnatal skeletal muscle in lines of chickens divergently selected for high and low body weight. 93:147-154.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Su, S., Miska, K.B., Fetterer, R.H., Jenkins, M.C., and Wong, E.A. 2014. Expression of digestive enzymes and nutrient transporters in Eimeria acervulina challenged layers and broilers. Poult Sci. 93:1217-1226.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Miska, K.B., Fetterer, R.H., and Wong, E.A. 2014. The mRNA expression of amino acid transporters, aminopeptidase, and the di- and tri-peptide transporter PepT1 in the embryo of the domesticated chicken (Gallus gallus) shows developmental regulation. Poult. Sci. 93:2262-2270.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Wong, E.A., Nutrient Transporter Gene Expression during Coccidiosis. Poultry Workshop, Plant and Animal Genome XXII, San Diego, CA, Jan 2014.